The textbook is a compact and highly informative essay on the history, theory and practice of pedagogy, written by leading St. Petersburg specialists in pedagogy and educational psychology.

The reader will learn about the main stages of formation and the latest achievements of pedagogy, about the structure of the world educational space, about the variety of forms and directions of modern pedagogical activity. A significant place in the textbook is given to the analysis of difficult pedagogical situations. This section will help the future professional to learn how to actively use their educational and training potential, to apply modern psychological knowledge in practice.

Introduction

This book is addressed to everyone who wants to be aware of the main pedagogical problems and ways to solve them in world and domestic science and practice.

Our reader will be able to get not only a set of information on the problems of training, education and upbringing, but also an idea of ​​the interpretation of these problems in different countries, eras and civilizations.

Working on the content of the book, the authors adhered to the cultural and civilizational concentration of pedagogical knowledge and experience, taking into account the variety of pedagogical guidelines of modern man in solving the cardinal problems of our time. The main idea of ​​the book is that pedagogy, like any developing science, is constantly revising and expanding aspects of understanding its main categories, and in practice it is continuously enriched with the experience of education and training due to the boundlessness and versatility of pedagogical creativity. Expanding the boundaries of traditional pedagogy, the authors used modern historical data, the results of scientific research by teachers and psychologists, as well as world and domestic innovative pedagogical experience in preparing the text. Therefore, the interested reader can immerse himself in the diversity of the semantic field of pedagogy and its purpose.

This publication is to some extent encyclopedic, which means it will be useful to a wide range of readers - from professional teachers, students of higher educational institutions to schoolchildren and their parents. It not only presents various areas of pedagogical science and practice, but also touches upon the social and pedagogical problems that both children and adults face. The book not only deals with the traditional problems of training, upbringing and education in a fairly rich content-semantic variety, but also defines pedagogical guidelines for a modern person who chooses a way to interact with people in certain conditions ¾ in the family, at work, at school or university , on the street or in the company of peers.

Man as a subject of education

The essence of education and self-education. The problems of education and training are inextricably linked, since these processes are aimed at the person as a whole. In practice, it is difficult to identify areas of exclusive influence of teaching and educational influences on human development: on his emotions, will, character, as well as on motivation, value orientations and intellect. Even Plato wrote: "... we recognize proper education as the most important thing in training." However, the scientific understanding and organization of the processes of education and upbringing have their own characteristics. Therefore, the separation of these processes is carried out by us in order to explain their essence.

The theory and methodology of education are sections of general pedagogy, which clarify the essence, principles and methods, goals and content of the process of education.

Throughout the development of pedagogical thought, the above process has been the focus of attention of scientists and practitioners. And in our time, education remains the main category of pedagogy. The content of this phenomenon is updated with the development of practical experience, pedagogical science and its leading doctrine. The social practice of transferring social experience from the older generation to the younger one developed much earlier than the term denoting it, therefore the essence of education is interpreted from different points of view. In any case, a person who experiences the corresponding impact is considered as the subject of education.

The essence of education lies in the fact that the educator deliberately seeks to influence the educated person: “what a person as a person can and should be” (K. D. Ushinsky). That is, education is one of the activities to transform a person or group of people. This is a practice-transforming activity aimed at changing the mental state, worldview and consciousness, knowledge and method of activity, personality and value orientations of the educated person. Education reveals its specificity in determining the goal and position of the educator in relation to the pupil. At the same time, the educator takes into account the unity of the natural, genetic, psychological and social essence of the educated person, as well as his age and living conditions.

As practice shows, the function of educational influence can be implemented in different ways, at different levels, with multiple goals. For example, a person himself can purposefully exert an educational influence on himself, controlling his psychological state, behavior and activity. In this case, we can talk about self-education. At the same time, the choice of an educational goal and ways to achieve it depends on the position of a person in relation to himself (who he would like to be in the present and become in the future).

Education as a process. The structure of the educational process is the relationship of the main elements: goals and content, methods and means, as well as the results achieved.

Education is a multifactorial process. It is influenced by the natural environment, the life world and the hierarchy of social values; family, school and university, children's and youth organizations; daily and professional activities, art and media.

Among the variety of educational factors, two main groups are distinguished: objective and subjective.

The group of objective factors includes:

• genetic heredity and human health;
• social and cultural affiliation of the family, influencing its immediate environment;
• circumstances of the biography;
• cultural tradition, professional and social status;
• features of the country and historical era.

The group of subjective factors consists of:

• mental characteristics, worldview, value orientations, internal needs and interests of both the educator and the educated person;
• system of relations with society;
• organized educational influences on a person by individuals, groups, associations and the whole community.

In the course of history, a need arose to comprehend the process of education, to determine its specifics, namely, to clarify the goals of education and the levels of their implementation; specific means and types of education.

The goals of education are the expected changes in a person (or group of people), carried out under the influence of specially prepared and systematically carried out educational actions and actions. The process of formulating such goals, as a rule, accumulates the humanistic attitude of the educator (group or the whole society) to the personality of the educator.

The criteria for assessing a person's upbringing are:

• “good” as behavior for the benefit of another person (group, collective, society as a whole);
• "truth" as a guide in assessing actions and deeds;
• "beauty" in all forms of its manifestation and creation.

The measure of a person's upbringing is determined by the following criteria: the breadth and height of a person's ascent to the above values; the degree of orientation in the rules, norms, ideals and values ​​of society and the measure of their guidance in actions and actions, as well as the level of personal qualities acquired on their basis and their hierarchy in the personality structure.

The upbringing of a person can be judged by numerous indicators: by appearance, speech, behavior in general and characteristic individual actions, by value orientations, in relation to activities and style of communication.

Here is what A.P. Chekhov wrote about educated people ( Chekhov A.P. Sobr. op. In 12 volumes. T. 11. - M., 1956. - S. 83-84.):

Educated people, in my opinion, must satisfy the following conditions:

1. They respect the human personality, and therefore are always indulgent, gentle, polite, compliant ... They do not rebel because of a hammer or a missing rubber band; living with someone, they do not do this a favor, and when they leave, they do not say: it is impossible to live with you! They forgive noise, and cold, and overcooked meat, and sharpness, and the presence of strangers in their homes ...
2. They are compassionate not only to beggars and cats. They are sick of the soul and from what you can’t see with the naked eye ...
3. They respect other people's property, and therefore pay their debts.
4. They are sincere and fear lies like fire. They do not lie even in trifles. A lie is offensive to the listener and vulgarizes the speaker in his eyes. They do not show off, they behave in the street just as they do at home, they do not throw dust in the eyes of the lesser brethren ... They are not talkative and do not climb with frankness when they are not asked ... Out of respect for other people's ears, they are often silent.
5. They do not destroy themselves in order to arouse sympathy and help in another. They do not play on the strings of other people's souls, so that in response they sigh and coddle with them. They don't say they don't understand me!
6. They are not busy. They are not interested in such false diamonds as acquaintance with celebrities, the delight of the passer in salon" e, known for porter...
7. If they have talent in themselves, they respect it. They sacrifice peace, women, wine, vanity for him...
8. They cultivate aesthetics in themselves. They cannot sleep in their clothes, breathe the foul air, walk on the spat on the floor...

Any educational task is solved through the initiation by the educator of active actions of the pupil. Such an undertaking can be, for example, performing physical exercises or solving a learning problem, perceiving a work of art or cleaning an apartment, overcoming fear or a bad habit.

The success of the educational action as a unity of the educational goal-content (means and methods for achieving the goal) is manifested as an increase in the degree of autonomous activity of the pupil. Thus, in a jointly distributed activity, a transition is made from the position “on an equal footing” to the position of expanding the rights of the pupil, transferring powers and duties to him. Starting independent activity, striving for self-improvement, the pupil can count on the help and support of the educator.

The direction of education is determined by the unity of goals and content.

On this basis, mental, moral, labor, physical and aesthetic education are distinguished. In our time, new areas of educational work are being formed - civil, legal, economic, environmental.

mental education is focused on the development of a person's intellectual abilities, interest in knowing the world around him and himself.

It assumes:

• development of willpower, memory and thinking as the main conditions for cognitive and educational processes;
• formation of a culture of educational and intellectual work;
• stimulating interest in working with books and new information technologies;
• as well as the development of personal qualities - independence, breadth of outlook, the ability to be creative.

The tasks of mental education are solved by means of training and education, special psychological trainings and exercises, conversations about scientists, statesmen from different countries, quizzes and competitions, involvement in the process of creative search, research and experiment.

Ethics is the theoretical basis of moral education.

The main tasks of ethical education are:

• accumulation of moral experience and knowledge about the rules of social behavior (in the family, on the street, at school and other public places);
• reasonable use of free time and the development of moral qualities of the individual, such as an attentive and caring attitude towards people; honesty, tolerance, modesty and delicacy; organization, discipline and responsibility, a sense of duty and honor, respect for human dignity, diligence and work culture, respect for the national heritage.

In life, one can observe the facts of a person's deviation from moral principles.

For example, the hero of F. M. Dostoevsky's Notes from the Underground wants to live according to his own, stupid will; and therefore, even if the whole world collapses, and he will indulge in tea.

In the psychology of a person "from the underground" Dostoevsky saw the growing phenomenon of social "nihilism".

The main criteria of a moral person are his beliefs, moral principles, value orientations, as well as actions in relation to relatives and strangers.

In this context, it is appropriate to recall the idea of ​​L. N. Tolstoy regarding the multiplication of "evil" in the world.

In the story "The False Coupon", a schoolboy deceives a shopkeeper; he, in turn, pays the peasant for firewood with counterfeit money. Due to further confluence of circumstances, the peasant becomes a robber. L. N. Tolstoy focuses the reader's attention on the effectiveness of the ancient postulate in everyday life - "do not do to another what you do not want for yourself."

In the process of moral education, methods such as persuasion and personal example, advice, wishes and approving feedback, a positive assessment of actions and deeds, public recognition of a person's achievements and merits are widely used. It is also advisable to conduct ethical conversations and debates on examples of works of art and practical situations. At the same time, the spectrum of moral education implies both public censure and the possibility of disciplinary and deferred punishments.

Main tasks labor education are: the development of a conscientious, responsible and creative attitude to various types of work, the accumulation of professional experience as a condition for fulfilling the most important duty of a person.

To solve these problems, different methods and means are used:

• organization of joint work of the educator and pupil;
• explanation of the significance of a certain type of labor for the benefit of the family, the team of employees and the entire enterprise, the Fatherland;
• material and moral encouragement of productive labor and manifestation of creativity;
• acquaintance with the labor traditions of the family, team, country;
• organization of work in circles of interest (technical creativity, modeling, theatrical activities, cooking);
• exercises on the development of labor skills in the performance of specific operations (skills of reading, counting, writing, using a computer; various repair work; manufacturing wood and metal products);
• creative contests and competitions, exhibitions of creative works and evaluation of their quality;
• temporary and permanent home assignments, class duties at school, performance of assigned duties in labor teams;
• systematic participation in socially useful work, training in technologies and methods of organizing professional activities;
• control over saving time and energy, resources;
• accounting and evaluation of the results of labor (quality, timing and accuracy of the task, streamlining the process and the presence of a creative approach);
• special training for work.

aim aesthetic education is the development of an aesthetic attitude to reality.

Aesthetic attitude implies the ability to emotional perception of beauty. It can manifest itself not only in relation to nature or a work of art. For example, I. Kant believed that, contemplating a work of art created by the hand of a genius, we join the “beautiful”. However, only a raging ocean or a volcanic eruption we perceive as "sublime", which man cannot create.

Thanks to the ability to perceive the beautiful, a person is obliged to bring the aesthetic into his personal life and the lives of others, into everyday life, professional activities and the social landscape. At the same time, aesthetic education should protect us from going into "pure aestheticism."

In the story "The Snow Queen" by the contemporary St. Petersburg prose writer V. Shpakov, the heroine seeks to reduce life to existence in the beautiful world of classical music. Striving for the classics is commendable in itself, but the trouble is that at the same time, the “rough” everyday life in which we all live is despised and discarded. And everyday life takes revenge, driving the heroine crazy.

Artistic and literary works, music, art, cinema, theater, folklore are used in the process of aesthetic education. This process involves participation in artistic, musical, literary creativity, organizing lectures, conversations, meetings and concert evenings with artists and musicians, visiting museums and art exhibitions, studying the architecture of the city.

Of educational importance is the aesthetic organization of labor, the attractive design of classrooms, auditoriums and interiors of educational institutions, artistic taste, manifested in the style of clothing of students, students and teachers. This also applies to the social landscape of everyday life. Cleanliness of entrances, landscaping of streets, original design of shops and offices can serve as examples.

Main tasks physical upbringing are: proper physical development, training of motor skills and the vestibular apparatus, various procedures for hardening the body, as well as the education of willpower and character, aimed at increasing a person’s working capacity.

The organization of physical education is carried out through physical exercises at home, at school, university, in sports sections. Physical education involves control over the regime of training, work and leisure (gymnastics and outdoor games, hiking and sports competitions) and medical prevention of diseases.

For the upbringing of a physically healthy person, it is extremely important to observe the elements of the daily routine: long sleep, high-calorie nutrition, a thoughtful combination of various activities.

civil education involves the formation of a person's responsible attitude to the family, to other people, to his people and the Fatherland. A citizen must conscientiously fulfill not only constitutional laws, but also professional duties, and contribute to the prosperity of the country. At the same time, he can feel responsible for the fate of the entire planet, which is threatened by military or environmental disasters, and become a citizen of the world.

economic education is a system of measures aimed at developing the economic thinking of a modern person on the scale of his family, production, and the whole country. This process involves not only the formation of business qualities - thrift, enterprise, prudence, but also the accumulation of knowledge related to property problems, management systems, economic profitability, taxation.

ecological education is based on understanding the enduring value of nature and all life on Earth. It orients a person to respect for nature, its resources and minerals, flora and fauna. Each person should take a feasible part in the prevention of ecological catastrophe.

legal education implies knowledge of one's rights and obligations and responsibility for their non-compliance. It is focused on fostering a respectful attitude towards laws and the Constitution, human rights and a critical attitude towards those who violate the latter.

The educational process as a whole and within the framework of a separate direction can be observed or organized at several levels (V. I. Ginetsinsky).

First, so-called societal level gives an idea of ​​education as a permanent function of society at any stage of its development in the context of a generally significant culture, namely, such a side of the life of society that is associated with the transmission of culture in all its forms and manifestations to the younger generation. In Russia, the educational goals of this level are defined in the law "On Education", in the Constitution, in the International Convention on Human Rights and other state-political documents that express the educational policy of our country and the entire international community.

second, and institutional level involves the implementation of educational goals and objectives in the context of specific social institutions. That is, organizations and institutions that are specially created for this, for example, orphanages and boarding schools, kindergartens, schools and universities, art houses and development centers.

The third, socio-psychological level determines education in the conditions of individual social groups, associations, corporations, collectives. For example, the staff of an enterprise has an educational impact on its employees, an association of businessmen - on its colleagues, an association of mothers of dead soldiers, speaking out against the war - on state bodies, an association of teachers - on the development of the creative potential of teachers.

Fourth, interpersonal level defines the specifics of education as the practice of interaction between the educator and pupils, taking into account the individual psychological and personal characteristics of the latter. Examples of such practices are: parenting, the work of a social psychologist and teacher in working with children, adolescents and adults, the educational influence of a teacher in the process of communicating with students in the educational system.

Fifth, intrapersonal level, in fact, it is a process of self-education, which is carried out as an educational impact of a person on himself in different life circumstances, for example, in situations of choice and conflict, in the process of completing educational tasks, during exams or sports competitions.

Ways of educational influence on a person

To solve educational problems, you can choose different combinations of methods, techniques and means. This choice primarily depends on the specifics of the goals and objectives.

What is meant by methods, techniques and means of education?

As a basis for determining methods they are guided by the positions of the educator in the choice of ways of educational interaction. It is possible to single out a number of interactions that are established between the educator and the pupil: ways of influencing the nature of the pupil's relationship to himself, to his family; its inclusion in the system of communication with peers, with employees at work; ways to adjust the worldview, change in value attitudes and behavior - there is no unambiguous definition of upbringing methods. At the same time, their general focus on changing the pupil's attitude towards society or himself, an object or method of activity, another person or a whole group of people has been revealed. Hence it follows that the method of education is one of the tools not only for influencing a person, but also for interaction.

• the direct influence of the educator on the pupil (through persuasion, moralizing, demands, orders, threats, punishments, encouragement, personal example, authority, requests, advice);
• creation of special conditions, situations and circumstances that force the pupil to change his own attitude, express his position, carry out an act, show character;
• public opinion of the reference group, for example, a team (school, student, professional), personally significant for the pupil, as well as thanks to an authoritative person for him - a father, scientist, artist, statesman, artist, and the media (television, print media, radio);
• joint activities of the educator with the pupil, communication, play;
• the processes of learning or self-education, the transfer of information or social experience in the family circle, in the process of friendly and professional communication;
• immersion in the world of folk traditions, folk art, reading fiction.

The educator chooses and uses a system of methods according to the goals set. Since they are “tools for touching the personality” (A. S. Makarenko), insofar as they are chosen, it is necessary to take into account all the subtleties and characteristics of the personality of the pupil. There is no good or bad method. The effectiveness of solving educational problems depends on many factors and conditions, as well as on the sequence and logic of applying a combination of methods.

Attempts are being made to systematize the methods of education. So, for example, there are three groups of methods (G.I. Shchukin):

1. focused on the formation of a positive experience of the behavior of pupils in communication and activities;
2. aimed at achieving the unity of consciousness and behavior of pupils;
3. using rewards and punishments.

P.I. Pidkasisty offers another grouping of upbringing methods:

1. forming the worldview of pupils and exchanging information;
2. organizing the activities of pupils and stimulating her motives;
3. assisting pupils and assessing their actions.

These classifications of upbringing methods, like any others, are very arbitrary. The educational task should be solved by means of a complex of methods, techniques and means.

Let us give examples of upbringing methods, clarifying their distinctive features.

Pedagogical requirement how parenting can:

• express the norms of human behavior that are necessary to enrich social experience;
• act as a specific task;
• have a stimulating or "fettering" function in the form of instructions on the beginning and end of work, on the transition to new actions, on providing assistance, on stopping actions;
• help the pupil to understand the meaning, usefulness or necessity of an action, deed.

As you can see, the possibilities of the method are diverse and in fact are not limited to the listed set. The forms of making demands on a person are divided into direct (in the form of an order, instructions in a businesslike, decisive tone, having an instructive character) and indirect (carried out through advice, requests, hints in order to arouse in the pupil the corresponding experience, interest, motive for action or deed).

accustoming as a method of education involves the cultivation of the pupil's ability for organized actions and reasonable behavior as a condition for the formation of the foundations of morality and sustainable forms of behavior.

Teaching involves demonstrating by the educator a pattern or process for the correct performance of actions. The pupil must learn to perfectly copy and systematically maintain the acquired skill or skill.

Learning is achieved through a system of exercises. The possibilities of the method are as follows: it helps to learn important skills and actions as stable foundations of human behavior. This method contributes to the self-organization of the pupil and penetrates into all aspects of life: teaching, work, rest, play, sports.

Example as a method of education is contained in a convincing role model. As a rule, this is an independent person, the way of life, manner of behavior and actions of which others strive to follow. The example is connected with the visual representation and concretization of the ideal of a person. It represents a long-term perspective of the pupil's aspirations to be like (positive option) an ideal image or overcome those negative features in himself that are somewhat related to a negative image (negative option). In the process of raising a child, the power of both positive and negative examples is equally effective.

Examples are used as a means of forming a certain way of the pupil's behavior in order to orient him towards a positive ideal and develop an emotional rejection of antisocial actions and deeds.

promotion as a method of education is aimed at the emotional approval of successfully performed actions and moral deeds of a person and stimulation to new ones.

Punishment as a method of education, it is focused on restraining the negative actions of a person and “fettering” (inhibiting) influence in such situations.

The types of rewards can be very diverse: approval, praise, gratitude, reward, responsible assignment, a kiss from a loved one, moral support in a difficult situation, a manifestation of trust and admiration, care and attention, forgiveness for misconduct.

Types of punishments: remark, reprimand, public censure, suspension from an important matter, moral exclusion from public daily life, an angry look from the educator, condemnation, indignation, reproach or a hint, an ironic joke.

methodical tricks - this is a concrete manifestation of a certain method of education in practice. They determine the originality of the methods used and emphasize the individual style of work of the educator. In specific situations, the relationship between methods and techniques is dialectical and ambiguous. They can replace each other, and their subordinate relationship is not always visible. For example, in the process of applying the method of persuasion, the educator can use examples, conduct conversations, create special situations of influence on the consciousness, feelings, and will of the pupil. In this case, an example, a conversation act as a means of solving an educational problem. At the same time, using the teaching method, the educator can use persuasion as one of the techniques. Persuasion will help to accomplish the task of including the pupil in the system of expedient actions for the formation of specific experience; for example, strict adherence to the regime of work and rest.

The means of education are the "toolkit" of material and spiritual culture, which is used to solve educational problems. These include:

• iconic symbols;
• material resources;
• ways of communication;
• the world of life of the pupil;
• collective and social group as organizing conditions of education;
• technical means;
• cultural values ​​(toys, books, works of art).

As a rule, a person feels on himself situational acts of educational influence, which are of a short-term nature. Variants of purposeful educational interaction between the educator and the pupil can have a different form, duration and be carried out in different conditions (in the family, educational institution).

Forms of education- these are options for organizing a specific educational act or their system. For example: an explanatory conversation with parents about the rules of conduct in public places (at school, a museum, a theater, a stadium, a store), a debate on the topic “What is more important for a person - “I” or “We”?”, a joint action of adults and children for the improvement of your home, landscaping the yard. The procedure for using a set of methods and techniques to achieve an educational goal is usually called methodology .

The system of methods, techniques and means used in accordance with the specific logic of achieving goals and the principles of the educator's action is defined as technology .

For example, they talk about the method of educating a culture of speech or accuracy in a child, but about the technology of speech training or business communication. The development and application of both methods and technologies are based on scientific knowledge about a person and the process of his upbringing. Therefore, they are referred to the sphere of professional activity of specialists in the field of human education.

The combination of developing methods and means of education should be used during the period of formation of the personality of the pupil and stimulate in him the ability to actively respond to educational influence, that is, to really be the subject of a particular situation. Educational methods and means are used not only to solve the educational problems of the younger generation, but are also used to help adults in the processes of socialization, adaptation to new living conditions, correction of behavior or the nature of relationships with people.

Types of parenting

The first historical type of education, related to primitive man, had a number of features. Its distinguishing feature was high efficiency and a significant correspondence between the goals, means and results of education.

It can be said that life itself brought up; the natural environment demanded from a person only such behavior and actions that would allow him to survive. During this period, the traditional nature of the orientation of children towards the reproduction of the activities of adults, whose experience was relatively small, was manifested. Education in a primitive society was carried out along with the struggle for survival and required the constant assimilation of a vital number of skills, abilities and rituals. Any kind of self-restraint that the child encountered was collective and mandatory. In this type of upbringing, we meet with the unique experience of a person's striving from inability to ability, from ignorance to knowledge, as well as to the emergence of the need for knowledge of the world around.

As civilization develops, the first type of education, based on the natural division of labor and the corresponding socio-cultural essence of the primitive era, gives way second type education. This type was determined by the social division of labor and was accompanied by property and social inequality. Various social groups and individuals had opportunities corresponding to their social position. As a result, they have different pedagogical tasks. That is, there was a differentiation of the goals of education and ways of implementing the latter. Therefore, the second type represents the historical diversity of human education, due to the socio-cultural characteristics of a civilization, era, country, nation.

Ancient civilizations have left to humanity an invaluable heritage related to the organized education of a person (A. N. Dzhurinsky, G. B. Kornetov). But each great or local civilization has its own peculiarities of upbringing. What are the pedagogical traditions of the great ancient civilizations?

Far Eastern civilization developed in China in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. and also established itself in Korea and Japan. Despite some dynamics, the content of education within the framework of this civilization remained practically unchanged until the beginning of the 20th century. Historically, the Far Eastern pedagogical tradition has developed as a result of the syncretic unity of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.

The Chinese philosopher Confucius belongs to one of the first ideas in the history of mankind, which consists in the comprehensive development of the individual. He gave precedence over education to the development of a moral principle in a person. Wise men and philosophers of the Far Eastern civilization instilled respect for elders in young people, preached the desire for a decent life, commensurate with social norms, oriented towards endless self-improvement. The latter presupposed not only the knowledge of the highest Virtue, but also the following of it at every moment of life. One had to make one's life virtuous, not running away from suffering into nirvana, not placing all hopes on the other world. Since the prestige of an educated person was very high, a cult of education developed. In turn, education was predominantly family-class in nature.

Center of South Asian Civilization was India. This civilization was characterized by a communal way of life and a caste organization of society, sanctified by ritual symbolism. The pedagogical tradition was based on the principle of the unity of the three obligations of a person: to the gods, sages and ancestors. Through severe education and self-education, a person had to overcome his own nature and release the inner world for merging with the over-personal and over-social divine absolute, to reach nirvana.

The ideological basis of the pedagogical tradition of the South Asian civilization was Hinduism, and later Buddhism. This basis determined the way of life of a person, the system of social and ethical norms, rituals and holidays. Neither education nor training was considered omnipotent. Innate qualities and heredity within the framework of this tradition fully determined the possibilities of upbringing and education in the process of human development. The pedagogical ideal, which differed depending on the caste, was based on such common features as self-restraint, good-naturedness, fidelity to vows, reasonableness and modesty. For example, among the Brahmins, the manifestation of intellectual abilities was considered the leading quality, among the Kshatriyas - strength and courage, among the Vaishyas - industriousness and patience, among the Shudras - humility.

Middle Eastern Civilization formed under the powerful influence of Islam, Judaism and Christianity. Its cultural and, accordingly, pedagogical tradition was imbued with a deep monotheistic religiosity, combined with elements of rationalism. Man in Muslim culture was considered a slave of the almighty Allah. Education was understood as the process of cultivating virtues, the most important of which was the unity of word and deed. Therefore, the meaning of education was reduced to developing the skills of obedience, obedience to the will of Allah and the fulfillment of religious duties in pupils. And it was also required to strictly comply with the prescribed norms of behavior, which were sacred in nature and introduced a person into the traditional way of life - confessional, caste, tribal community.

The fundamental foundations of Islamic education and training included not only religion, knowledge and science, wisdom, justice, practice and morality, but also human talent.

The basic pedagogical traditions of the great civilizations of the East determined Eastern type of education . This type is characterized by strict requirements regarding the implementation of traditional norms and canons. Man is understood here as a spiritual unity of emotions, will and mind. At the same time, this tradition seeks to speak directly to the heart as the center of the divine and the human. Therefore, knowledge is secondary in nature as a way to achieve "local" tasks. As a result, for a person of the East, the restriction of individual freedom, independence of thought, independence in various spheres of public life was typical.

Western civilization originated in antiquity. The formation of the Western pedagogical tradition began in Ancient Greece. It was then that the Spartan and Athenian models of education and upbringing were formed, which became the primary source for the development of Western pedagogical theory and practice. If Sparta demonstrated to the world an example of social and military-physical education, then Athens - a system of comprehensive and harmonious development of man. It was here that the ideal of educating a free creative personality, included in the polis (social) way of life, was put forward, in proportion to the ancient understanding of the cosmos. The pathos of the practice of education and training in Ancient Greece permeated the principle of competitiveness (agonistics). Children, teenagers, youth constantly competed in gymnastics, dancing, music, verbal disputes, asserting themselves and honing their best qualities. In the treatise “The State”, Plato was one of the first to put forward the idea of ​​educating a person throughout the life path.

Already at this stage in the development of Western civilization as the genotype of modern European culture, a tendency has emerged to combine purposeful and value-rational approaches to solving educational problems.

The basic pedagogical tradition of Western civilization has come a long and controversial path.

It is necessary to highlight the main features of the pedagogical tradition that determined western type of education .

These include:

• value-rational nature of education and upbringing;
• predominant orientation to the development of the will and mind;
• the assertion of individual and creative principles in a person, combined with the harmonization of relations with society.

For understanding the historical development of the pedagogical traditions of Western civilization and the formation of the corresponding process in Russia, the Roman period is of particular importance.

Education in Rome was civic and political in nature, and education was predominantly rhetorical.

Education in Byzantium was focused on the knowledge of the soul or self-knowledge and, accordingly, on self-improvement. It was during this period that the pedagogical tradition of secular and book education was born, striving for independence from the dictates of the church and the search for humanistic ideals in the upbringing of a person.

Corresponding traditions developed in Russia mainly under the influence of Western culture and civilization, especially Byzantine. V. O. Klyuchevsky characterized it as follows:

• in the ancient period - family and community education and mythological education;
• then the Christian upbringing of a person in the "world" and the introduction of a person to Orthodoxy from a very early age;
• scholastic education.

Over a long historical period, education in Russia was divided into folk (peasant), house building (education in the families of merchants and petty bourgeois) and noble. In turn, public education was primary and handicraft, and noble education was higher.

Since 1917, the ideas of communist education have been implemented in Russia, which involves a program of universal literacy and a three-stage system of continuous education, characterized by the uniformity of educational institutions in all regions of Russia (kindergarten, school, college, technical school, institute, university).

Since the early 1990s Russia has moved to a new stage in solving upbringing and educational tasks.

Parenting patterns and styles

In the process of theoretical substantiation and explanation of the nature of education, three main paradigms are distinguished that represent a certain attitude to social and biological determinants.

Social education paradigm(P. Bourdieu, J. Capel, L. Cro, J. Fourastier) focuses on the priority of society in educating a person. Its supporters propose to correct heredity by forming the appropriate socio-cultural world of the educated person.

Supporters of the second biopsychological paradigm(R. Gal, A. Medici, G. Mialare, K. Rogers, A. Fabre) recognize the importance of human interaction with the sociocultural world and at the same time defend the independence of the individual from the influences of the latter.

Third paradigm focuses on the dialectical interdependence of social and biological, psychological and hereditary components in the process of education (3. I. Vasilyeva, L. I. Novikova, A. S. Makarenko, V. A. Sukhomlinsky).

Types of education are classified according to the principle of content diversity of educational goals and ways to achieve them.

On an institutional basis they distinguish family, school, out-of-school, confessional (religious), education at the place of residence (community), as well as education in children's, youth organizations and in specialized educational institutions (orphanages, boarding schools).

family education - This is the organization of the life of the child in a family environment. It is the family that during the first six or seven years of a child's life forms the foundations of a future personality. Family education is productive if it is carried out in an atmosphere of love, mutual understanding and respect. A significant role here is also played by professional self-realization and the material well-being of parents, which create conditions for the normal development of the child. For example, "strength relations" extend where there are disagreements and quarrels between colleagues, neighbors, wives and husbands, parents and children; where alcohol and drugs are consumed.

Raising a child involves including him in a number of ordinary household chores (cleaning his bed, room), the gradual complication of tasks and activities (sports, music, reading, gardening). Since in a child at this age imitation (direct reproduction of the actions, words and deeds of people around) acts as one of the main ways of knowing the world, it is desirable to limit external negative influences.

school education- this is the organization of educational activities and the life of children in a school environment, as well as extracurricular educational work, which includes the maintenance of school traditions and holidays, the organization of self-government. Under these conditions, the personality of the teacher and the positive nature of communication with students, the educational and psychological atmosphere of classes and recreation are important.

Out-of-school education assumes that the solution of the above tasks is carried out by out-of-school educational institutions, organizations and societies. These include development centers, children's art houses, schoolchildren's rooms at police stations (where adolescents are placed who have violated public order or violated the law), "green" societies (young naturalists and environmentalists).

confessional education is realized through religious traditions and rituals, familiarization with the system of religious values ​​and confessional culture, addressed to the "heart", to the belief in the divine origin of man. Since believers make up about 90% of humanity, the role of religious or church education is very great.

Education in the community- this is the organization of socially useful activities of children and youth in the microdistrict of residence. This activity, joint with adults, consists in planting trees, cleaning the territory, collecting waste paper, providing patronage assistance to lonely old people and the disabled. As well as circle work, sports competitions and holidays organized by parents and teachers.

Relationship between teachers and pupils(on the basis of managing the process of educational influence on the pupil by the educator) there are authoritarian, democratic, liberal and conniving education.

Authoritarian upbringing- a type of education in which a certain ideology is accepted as the only truth in the relationship between people. The higher the social role of the educator as a translator of this ideology (teacher, priest, parents, ideological workers, etc.), the more pronounced is the compulsion of the pupil to behave in accordance with this ideology. In this case, education is carried out as operating on human nature and manipulating his actions. At the same time, such educational methods as demand (direct presentation of the norm of proper behavior in specific conditions and to specific pupils), exercise in proper behavior in order to form habitual behavior, etc. dominate. Coercion is the main way of transferring social experience to a new generation. The degree of coercion is determined by the extent to which the educator has the right to determine or choose the content of past experience and the value system - family values, norms of behavior, communication rules, values ​​of religion, ethnic group, party, etc. , omniscience.

The authoritarian style is characterized by a high centralization of leadership, the dominance of one-man management. In this case, the teacher single-handedly makes and cancels decisions, most of the issues regarding the problems of education and upbringing are decided by him. The predominant methods of managing the activities of their pupils are Orders, which can be given in a hard or soft form (in the form of a request that cannot be ignored). An authoritarian teacher always very strictly controls the activities and behavior of pupils, is demanding on the clarity of fulfilling his instructions. The initiative of pupils is not encouraged or encouraged within strictly defined limits.

Considering the situations of manifestation of the authoritarian style in practice, one can find two extremes. The authoritarian style can be realized by the teacher in the mode of his own feelings, which can be described using metaphors: "I am the commander" or "I am the father."

With the position “I am the commander”, the power distance is very large, and in the process of interaction with the pupil, the role of procedures and rules is enhanced.

With the position “I am a father”, a strong concentration of power and influence on the actions of the pupil in the hands of the teacher remains, but at the same time, care for the pupil and a sense of responsibility for his present and future play a large role in his actions.

Democratic style education is characterized by a certain distribution of powers between the teacher and the pupil in relation to the problems of his education, leisure, interests, etc. The teacher tries to make decisions by consulting with the pupil, and provides him with the opportunity to express his opinion, attitude, and make his own choice. Often such a teacher turns to the pupil with requests, recommendations, advice, less often - orders. Systematically monitoring the work, he always notes the positive results and achievements, the personal growth of the pupil and his miscalculations, paying attention to those moments that require additional efforts, self-improvement or special classes. The teacher is demanding, but at the same time fair, in any case, he tries to be so, especially in assessing the actions, judgments and deeds of his pupil. In dealing with people, including children, he is always polite and friendly.

Democratic style can be implemented in practice in the system of the following metaphors: “Equal among equals” and “First among equals”.

The first option - "Equal among equals" - is a style of relationship between the educator and the pupil, in which the teacher basically performs the necessary duties to coordinate the pupil's actions in organizing his educational activities, self-education, leisure, etc., taking into account his interests and his own opinion, coordinating with him on the rights of an "adult" person all questions and problems.

The second position - "First among equals" - is realized in the relationship between the teacher and the pupil, in which a high culture of activity and relations dominates, the teacher's great trust in the pupil and confidence in the correctness of all his judgments, actions and deeds. In this case, the teacher recognizes the right to autonomy and basically sees the task in coordinating the student's independent actions and providing assistance when the student himself addresses him.

Let's clarify the understanding of democratic interaction - this is a type of interaction between people when neither of the two contracting parties has the opportunity to force the other to do something. For example, directors of two neighboring schools agree on cooperation. They have the same socio-administrative status, they are equally economically and socially protected. In this case, in order to achieve a result, they have to negotiate. The second example: two teachers at a school agree to develop an integrated course. The path through coercion in this situation is in principle unacceptable.

However, the situation changes if people interact at different levels, for example, the hierarchical career ladder, both within the same organization and in society.

For some teachers, persuading their students (or employees in the process of professional activity) is the only possible way of communication and interaction, despite the fact that this style has not only pluses, but also minuses. This may be the result of upbringing, life experience, the result of personality development and the formation of character, or the result of circumstances, a particular situation. For example, in a situation where a teacher is dealing with a pupil with a strong character (or a leader comes to an organization with a strong, established creative team of professionals), then the style of leadership is one, but if the teacher plays the role of an educator of a delinquent teenager, the style is different.

Liberal style (non-interference) education is characterized by the lack of active participation of the teacher in the management of the process of education and upbringing. Many, even important matters and problems can actually be solved without his active participation and guidance. Such a teacher is constantly waiting for instructions "from above", being in fact a transmission link between adults and children, a leader and subordinates. To perform any work, he often has to persuade his pupils. He mainly solves those issues that are brewing themselves, controlling the work of the pupil, his behavior from case to case. In general, such a teacher is characterized by low demands and weak responsibility for the results of education.

conniving style education is characterized by a kind of "indifference" (most often unconscious) on the part of the teacher in relation to the development, dynamics of educational achievements or the level of upbringing of their pupils. This is possible either from the very great love of the educator for the child, or from the idea of ​​​​the complete freedom of the child everywhere and in everything, or from callousness and indifference to the fate of the child, etc. But in any case, such a teacher is guided by the satisfaction of any interests of children, without hesitation over the possible consequences of their actions, without setting prospects for personal development. The main principle in the activities and behavior of such a teacher is not to interfere with any actions of the child and to satisfy his any desires and needs, perhaps even to the detriment of not only himself, but also the child, for example, his health and the development of spirituality and intellect.

In practice, none of the above styles can be manifested in a “pure form” by a teacher. It is also obvious that applying only the democratic style is not always effective. Therefore, to analyze the practice of an educator, the so-called mixed styles are more often used: authoritarian-democratic, liberal-democratic, etc. Each teacher can use different styles depending on situations and circumstances, however, many years of practice forms an individual style of education, which is relatively stable, has little dynamics and can be improved in various directions. The change of style, for example, the transition from authoritarian to democratic, is a radical event, because each style is based on the characteristics of the character and personality of the teacher, and its change can be accompanied by a serious psychological “breaking” of a person.

Depending on the philosophical concept , defining the principles and features of the education system, distinguish models pragmatic, anthropological, societal, free and other types of education. Philosophical understanding of education (B. P. Bitinas, G. B. Kornetov, etc.) reveals the general that is characteristic of the practice of education of different countries, peoples, eras, civilizations. Therefore, models of education developed on the basis of philosophical concepts and ideas, to a greater extent, answer not so much the question “what” is brought up, but rather the question “why” is the process of education carried out in this way, revealing its ideas and features as a holistic process.

Let us turn only to some of the ideas underlying the most well-known parenting models in the world.

Idealism in education goes back to the ideas of Plato. His followers considered education as the creation of such an environment for the educated, thanks to which the eternal and unchanging ideas embedded in the soul would flourish, which would predetermine the development of a full-fledged personality. The main purpose of education within the framework of this doctrine is to help the educated person discover the higher world of ideas and turn the knowledge gained into the content of the educated person's personality. It is important to teach and accustom the educated person to use the mind prompted by internal, innate imperatives. By means of education and in the process of education, the ascent from the natural principle to the highest in man - spirituality is carried out.

However, representatives of this trend saw the relationship between the goals of education and the ways to achieve them differently. So, for example, I. G. Pestalozzi saw the pupil’s awareness of himself as an intrinsic value as the main goal of education. His follower F. Froebel believed that the content and form of education are determined by spiritual reality, and the development of the child is a material manifestation of his inner world and the spiritualization of physical existence. I. Herbart defined the main goal of education as the harmony of the will with ethical ideas and the development of interest in a variety of phenomena. V. Dilthey formulated the task of education in this way - to teach the educated person to understand an alien world, that is, life objectified in cultural objects by getting used to, empathy, etc., which is united by the concept of the hermeneutic method.

Modern representatives of this direction in understanding and organizing the process of education proceed from the following provisions: the process of education should be based on a high intellectual and meaningful level of interaction between the educator and the pupil, described as the appropriation of the achievements of human culture to the educated; the basis of education should be the self-realization of the personality of the educated person, and the skill of the educator lies in revealing the deep potential of the soul of the educated person.

Realism as a philosophy of education was the determinant of the concepts of education. The followers of realism in the upbringing of a person proceed from the provisions on the transfer to the educatee of indisputable knowledge and experience in a dissected form, the truth and values ​​of culture through the division of a holistic reality into an objective display, taking into account the age-related possibilities for their appropriation. Education should be built as helping the pupil to realize what naturally stimulates his behavior and activities. As a result, priority is given to methods of educational influence on the consciousness of the pupil and practical activity, while insufficient attention is paid to the development of the emotional-figurative sphere of the personality.

The weak point of education models developed on the so-called materialistic realism , consists in the fact that the role of knowledge about the person himself in the process of his upbringing is belittled, his right to irrationality in actions, in life is not recognized.

Pragmatism as a philosophy of education . Its representatives consider education not as preparing the pupil for the future adult life, but as the life of the educated in the present. Therefore, the task of education within the framework of this direction is to teach the educated person to solve real life problems and, with the accumulation of such experience, to achieve maximum well-being and success within the framework of the norms that are determined by the social environment of his life. Hence, it is proposed to put the process of solving life problems as the basis for the content of education. Educated students must learn the general principles and methods of solving typical problems that a person faces throughout life, and gain experience in solving such problems in the real conditions of their life in order not only to successfully join the life of modern society, but also to become a conductor of social transformations. That is, in the process of education, the educator should accustom the pupil not to passive adaptation to real conditions, but to an active search for ways to improve his well-being, up to the transformation of conditions in the direction he wants. Education is the constant encouragement of the educated person to experiment in order to prepare him for a meeting with life realities that are full of accidents, dangers, and risks. Education should be aimed at preparing the pupil for a meeting with the future, accustoming him to develop plans for his future and to choose the appropriate lifestyle, standards of behavior according to the criterion of utility. This means that within the framework of this direction, education is also considered as problematic, in which educational situations are changeable, the environment and the very interaction of the individual with the educator and the environment are constantly changing, the transmitted and acquired experience and the subjects of the educational process themselves are changing. The basis of education is the educational interaction of the pupil with the real environment, both natural and social, both at the cognitive and practical levels. The content of education should come from the logic of the life of the pupil and from his needs. That is, the focus of education on the individual self-development of the pupil is clearly visible. In this regard, the goals of education are in no way associated with the norms and are developed by each teacher, taking into account both general goals and a specific situation.

The weak point of this model of education is the extreme expression of the philosophy of pragmatism, which in practice is manifested in the education of tough pragmatists and individualists.

Anthropocentric model of education is based on the understanding of the essence of a person as an open system, constantly changing and renewing simultaneously with the surrounding world that is being updated in the process of his active activity, as well as on the provision on the essence of education as the creation of an environment that is most favorable for the self-development of the individual. The process of educating a person cannot be limited by norms or focused on an ideal, and therefore cannot be completed. It is enough just to program the process of personality development - what the educator needs to do in order to preserve the human in the student and help the student in the process of self-development, manifestations of creativity, gaining spiritual wealth, manifestations of individuality. The process of education should be built in such a way that the pupil can improve in all the diversity of human manifestations. Within the framework of this direction, various systems of organizing education are possible - from the standpoint of the dominance of biology, ethics, psychology, sociology, religious and cultural anthropology in their interconnection.

Societal model of education is focused on the fulfillment of the social order as the highest value for a group of people, which involves a biased selection of the content and means of education within small (family, reference group, school staff, etc.) and large social groups (public, political, religious communities, nation, people and etc.). The communist system of values, for example, pushed the class of workers to the hierarchical top and considered education as the education of a worker and a fighter for the liberation of mankind from the exploitation of human labor, ignoring the interests of other classes and social groups. The nationalistic system accepts its nation as the highest value and considers the interests of all other nations through the interests of its nation. In this case, education comes down to the education of a member of the most important and greatest nation on earth, ready to serve his nation, regardless of how this ignores or infringes on the interests of other nations. Other examples are possible. Common to them is the fact that all values, except for those accepted in society or a social group, are recognized as false.

humanistic education relies primarily on taking into account the personal and individual characteristics of the pupil. The task of education, based on the ideas of humanism, is to help the formation and improvement of the personality of the pupil, his awareness of his needs and interests. In the process of educational interaction, the teacher should be aimed at getting to know and accepting the pupil as he is, helping to realize the goals of development (the process of self-actualization of a person) and contributing to their achievement (personal growth), without removing the measure of responsibility for the results (providing development assistance). At the same time, the educator, even if this somehow infringes on his interests, organizes the upbringing process with maximum convenience for the pupil, creates an atmosphere of trust, stimulates the activity of the latter in choosing behavior and solving problems.

free upbringing(a variant of the democratic style of education), is aimed at forming the interests of the educated and creating conditions for the free choice of ways to satisfy them, as well as the values ​​of life. The leading goal of such education is teaching and accustoming the pupil to be free and to bear responsibility for his life, for the choice of spiritual values. Supporters of this direction rely on the idea that the human essence of an individual is the choice he makes, and free choice is inseparable from the development of critical thinking and from assessing the role of socio-economic structures as life factors, from responsible activity in determining ways to manage oneself, one's emotions, behavior, character of human relations in society. Therefore, the educator is called upon to help the educated person understand himself, realize his needs and the needs of the people around him and be able to coordinate them in specific life circumstances. Education thus follows the nature of the child or the maturing young man, eliminating harmful influences and ensuring natural development. The task of such education is to harmonize the action of these forces.

Technocratic model of education is based on the position according to which the process of education must be strictly directed, managed and controlled, technologically organized, and therefore reproducible and leading to projected results. Representatives of this direction in the process of education see the implementation of the formula "stimulus-reaction-reinforcement" or "behavior technology" (B. Skinner). Education in this case is considered as the formation of a system of behavior of the educated person with the help of reinforcements, seeing the opportunity to construct a "controlled individual", to develop the desired behavior in various social situations as socially approved norms, behavioral standards.

This approach lurks the threat of manipulating a person, of educating a human functionary.

Multicultural education. Educational systems: foreign and domestic experience

Multicultural education involves taking into account the cultural and educational interests of various national and ethnic minorities and provides for:

• human adaptation to different values ​​in the situation of the existence of many heterogeneous cultures; interaction between people with different traditions;
• orientation to the dialogue of cultures;
• rejection of the cultural and educational monopoly in relation to other nations and peoples.

Multicultural education cultivates in a person the spirit of solidarity and mutual understanding in the name of peace and the preservation of the cultural identity of different peoples.

There is a trend in the global community to self-education and education of a person throughout life . It means:

• continuity between preschool, out-of-school, school institutions and the university in solving educational problems;
• the process of continuous self-education of a person throughout life;
• realization of the human need for constant enrichment of the experience of social relations, ways of communication and interaction with people, technology, nature, the universe.

Such education is focused on the development of planetary thinking in each person and the awareness of belonging to the human community in the past, present and future.

Education system- this is a set of interrelated goals and principles of organizing the educational process, methods and techniques for their phased implementation within a certain social structure (family, school, university, state) and the logic of fulfilling a social order.

Any education system is in demand by a particular society and exists as long as it retains its significance. Therefore, it has a concrete historical character.

Mankind knows the pedagogical heritage of ancient civilizations, the era of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the 18th - 19th centuries. and the modern period of human development - XX and early XXI century.

What are the specifics of education systems, the most famous in the world?

Spartan education system pursued, for the most part, the goal of preparing a warrior - a member of the military community. Until the age of seven, the child was brought up in the family by nannies-breadwinners. From the age of seven, the policy (city-state) took over the upbringing and training of the growing Spartans. This process took place in three stages.

At the first stage (7-15 years old), children acquired writing and reading skills, but the main thing was physical hardening, which was extremely diverse (walking barefoot, sleeping on thin straw bedding). From the age of 12, the severity of the upbringing of boys increased, who were taught not only to an ascetic lifestyle, but also to laconicism. At the age of 14, the boy, passing through severe physical trials, was initiated into the Eirens - a member of the community with the provision of certain civil rights. Over the next year, the Eirens were tested for stamina in the military detachments of the Spartans.

At the second stage of education (15-20 years old), singing and music training was added to the minimum literacy education. However, the methods of education became tougher. Teenagers were kept starving and taught to get their own food, physically punishing those who failed. By the age of 20, the Eirens were initiated into warriors and received full weapons.

During the third stage (20-30 years) they gradually acquired the status of a full member of the military community.

As a result of such upbringing, the warriors were fluent in the use of a spear, sword, dart and other weapons of that time. However, the Spartan culture of education turned out to be hypertrophied military training with the actual ignorance of the younger generation. The educational tradition of Sparta during the VI - IV centuries. BC e. eventually came down to exercise and testing. It was these elements that became the subject of imitation in subsequent eras.

Athenian education system . It was an example of the education of a person in Ancient Greece, the main task of which was the comprehensive and harmonious development of the personality. The main principle was competition in gymnastics, dancing, music, and verbal disputes.

The system of organized education was implemented in stages.

Until the age of seven, boys were brought up at home. From the age of seven to 16, they attended both music and gymnastic (palestra) schools, where they received mainly literary, musical and military-sports education and upbringing.

At the second stage (16-18 years old), young men improved their education and developed themselves in gymnasiums. The peak of the achievements of a young man (18-20 years old) was considered to be in ephebia - a public institution for improving military skills.

Thus, this system focused on mastering the “set of virtues”, which later became known as the program of the “seven liberal arts” (grammar, dialectics, the art of argument, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music). This program has become a symbol of education for many generations and has gone down in history as a tradition of Greek learning.

In Europe VI - XV centuries. had a great influence in the world religious tradition of education people, especially Christians. The main task of such education was defined as bringing a person to harmony between earthly and heavenly existence through the assimilation and implementation of religiously established moral norms (Orthodox, Muslim, Buddhist).

In different countries and among different peoples, the ideas of religious education were embodied in specific forms, the diversity of which is also observed in the modern world.

Unlike most medieval states, Byzantium developed its own system of education and upbringing of a person, which influenced the development of European and Russian pedagogical traditions.

It was during this period that three main stages of human education were defined in Western civilization: elementary, secondary and higher. However, quite clear outlines of the three-stage education system in the history of China are noted much earlier - during the Han Dynasty (I century BC - II century AD).

History knows different examples estate education and education. In the most organized form, class home (or family) upbringing and education is presented in the system of knightly education and in the system of education of a gentleman (J. Locke).

For example, the ideal chivalrous upbringing included sacrifice, obedience and at the same time personal freedom, contempt for the book tradition of a literate person, observance of the "code of honor". The content of knightly education was based on the program of "seven knightly virtues": possession of a spear, fencing, riding, swimming, hunting, playing chess, singing and playing a musical instrument.

The system of knightly education consisted of the following stages. Until the age of seven, the boy received home education. From the age of seven to 14 at the court of the feudal lord (suzerain), he was a page with the wife of the suzerain and her courtiers and acquired a range of knowledge, skills and experience in court life. From the age of 14 to 21, the boy moved to the male half and became a squire at the knights of the overlord's court. During these years of life at court, the young man needed to master "the beginnings of love, war and religion." At 21, he was knighted. The rite was preceded by tests for physical, military and moral maturity at tournaments, fights, feasts. The tradition of knightly upbringing has been preserved to this day, primarily in the observance by young men of the "code of honor" as an idea of ​​​​the aesthetic and physical development of a person who highly values ​​self-esteem in any life circumstances.

The ideal of education according to Locke is a gentleman - a highly educated and businesslike person. As a rule, it was a native of high society, who received upbringing and education at home with the help of invited teachers and educators. A gentleman is a person distinguished by sophistication in dealing with people and possessing the qualities of a businessman and an entrepreneur. It was these features that formed the basis of the Western educational tradition of the 18th - 20th centuries.

Process educating a gentleman also had a phased character and the main components of its system were:

• physical education, development of character, development of the will;
• moral education and teaching good manners;
• labor education;
• the development of curiosity and interest in learning, which was supposed to have both a theoretical orientation and a practical one.

The example, work, environment and environment of a growing person were used as the main educational means. This system was focused on taking into account the individual characteristics of the pupil and on the development of his personality, the formation of a person as an individual.

The system of educating a person in a team and through a team A. S. Makarenko was implemented in Russia in the period from 1930 to 1980. It gained fame throughout the world as a system of “communist education”. Its main task was to educate a collectivist, for whom public interests should always be above personal ones. This process is considered and actually organized in accordance with the three stages of development of the team.

The first stage is characterized by a low level of development of the team, and priority in setting goals, choosing forms of collective activity and evaluating the results is given to the educator as an organizer and leader.

At the second stage, in the process of forming an asset and leaders, management is partially given to the most initiative members of the team.

At the third, highest stage of the development of the team, self-management becomes the main link in the management of all work. At the same time, the importance of public opinion increases in order to educate each of its members and the leading role of the educator is weakened. Each collective had to be guided by the "laws of collective movement" formulated by A. S. Makarenko. For example, the principle of parallel and individual action, a system of perspective lines.

Collectivism, diligence, discipline, responsibility to the team, communist purposefulness, conviction and a sense of pride were considered the main indicators of the success of education within this system.

Summary

In the course of history and in the process of development of pedagogical science itself, the understanding of the theory and practice of education has undergone significant changes. At first, the phenomenon of upbringing was studied primarily from the standpoint of a social function, sometimes even identified with socialization, which is illegal.

So today education is understood as:

• transfer of social experience and world culture;
• educational impact on a person, a group of people or a team (direct and indirect, mediated);
• organization of the lifestyle and activities of the pupil;
• educational interaction between the educator and the pupil;
• creating conditions for the development of the personality of the pupil, i.e. providing him with assistance and support in case of family problems, difficulties in learning, communication or professional activities.

Different approaches to defining the essence of education emphasize the practical complexity and versatility of this phenomenon.

Generally education is an educational act , the main components of which are the educator (a group of educators) and the pupil (a group of pupils), the process of their interaction and the conditions for its flow.

The structure of the educational process is revealed through the unity of the goal-content-methods of achieving the result.

The organization of the educational process and the realization of its goals can be carried out in the conditions of a family, school, university, museum, party faction, street environment, enterprise, prison zone.

In education, as a multifactorial process, groups of objective and subjective conditions are especially significant. Since the aforementioned process is realized in the system of the “person-to-person” relationship, the proportion of mutual subjective dependence of the educator and the pupil is large in it. Therefore, it is so difficult to establish patterns of education.

Historical and world practice shows that the main goal of education is defined as the formation of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed person, prepared for independent life and activity in modern society, able to share and increase its values.

For the purpose of harmonious and comprehensive development of a person, mental, moral, labor, aesthetic, physical, civil, economic, environmental, legal education is carried out.

Its results are personal neoplasms associated with the awareness and change of the worldview system, value relations, which allow choosing a lifestyle and behavior strategy, navigating in the language of modern culture. That is, in the human and social space of "good-evil", "truth-lie", "beautiful-ugly", "honesty-unscrupulousness", "love-hate", "friendship-betrayal", "rights and duties" always remain man.

Education can be implemented at the societal, institutional, socio-psychological, interpersonal and intrapersonal levels.

The same educational tasks can be solved in different ways. The effectiveness of solving the educational problem depends on many factors, but primarily on:

• the logic of the combined application of methods, techniques and educational means;
• individual and personal characteristics of the pupil and educator;
• conditions and circumstances in which the educational act was carried out.

In fact, the methods and means of education are used in conjunction. Such a combination is possible in the context of both a complex and a separate educational situation. For example, as part of the educational work of parents, members of the labor (student, student) team and in the course of the educational activities of professionals in special institutions.

The main concepts used to understand the ways of educational impact on a person and the methods of interaction between the educator and the pupil include methods, techniques and means of education, forms of education, methodology and technology of education.

In the history of the development of pedagogical practice, two main types of education are distinguished: primitive and socially oriented person.

In the process of civilizational development of mankind, eastern and western types of education took shape.

In the history of the development of the pedagogical traditions of each nation, there are characteristic features that determine the uniqueness of the corresponding trends in each country. Also, the processes of upbringing and education are influenced not only by culture and civilization, but also by factors of everyday life, the historical situation in the country. Russia, enriched by the cultural and educational traditions of the West and the East, has created its own traditions of upbringing and education of a person.

Depending on the scientific foundations of understanding a person and the process of his development, different concepts and models of education have appeared.

Through understanding the essence of education, one can determine the specifics of a particular model or concept, their advantages and disadvantages.

The theory and practice of education is constantly enriched. In this regard, the "openness" of pedagogical knowledge about a person and the process of his education is assumed, which contributes to the formation of new scientific schools and directions, the possibility of a variety of models and types of education.

The history of the development and formation of educational traditions is associated with certain educational systems that have developed in the process of the development of society.

Each educational system bears the imprint of time and the socio-political system, the nature of social relations. In the goals and objectives that it puts forward, the ideals of a person of this era are visible. In this regard, one should focus on understanding the origins of the traditions that have come down to us. In relation to the educational tradition, there is no evaluative criterion such as "bad" or "good". Examples of specific education systems show that they all developed according to the logic of the evolution of specific historical, cultural, moral, ideological and life values. Throughout the history of human development, the focus of human education has been and remains the family, church, society and state.

The main thing for each of the educational systems is the orientation towards the education of a person who is ready and able to live in a modern society for him.

For many centuries, the world has been developing and embodied in different ways the idea of ​​educating a person throughout his life.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What is upbringing? Define and explain the meaning of this phenomenon.
2. Highlight the components of a holistic act of education.
3. List and give a general description of the main elements of the structure of the educational process.
4. State the main purpose of education.
5. List the main tasks and directions of human education and specify the purpose of each of them in the current socio-cultural situation.
6. What is the result of education?
7. At what levels can the process of education be implemented?
8. What is meant by educational methods?
9. How meaningful are the methods of education in practice?
10. How is the effectiveness of education methods evaluated? What determines their choice?
11. Are there universal methods and means of education?
12. Give examples of educational methods and techniques and analyze their distinctive features.
13. What is used as educational means?
14. What is meant by "forms of educational work"?
15. How do they understand the methodology and technology of education, what is common between them and what is the difference?
16. Highlight the most important features of the historical types of human education.
17. What are the pedagogical traditions that developed during the period of the great ancient civilizations?
18. Give a description of the Eastern and Western types of human education.
19. What are the specifics of pedagogical traditions in Russia?
20. Name three main paradigms of human education.
21. What are the different types of education?
22. Give a description of the types of education known in world practice.
23. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the types of education you know?
24. Which of the parenting models did you like the most, which one would you choose to raise your children?
25. Is it possible the emergence of new directions and models of education in world and domestic practice? What does it depend on?
26. What do you put into understanding multicultural parenting and lifelong parenting?
27. What is the peculiarity of the "education system"?
28. By what criteria is this or that educational system evaluated?
29. What is the specificity of educational systems, the most famous in world practice?
30. What human ideals are seen in these systems as the standard of education?

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INTRODUCTION

This book is addressed to everyone who wants to be aware of the main pedagogical problems and ways to solve them in world and domestic science and practice.
Our reader will be able to get not only a set of information on the problems of training, education and upbringing, but also an idea of ​​the interpretation of these problems in different countries, eras and civilizations.
Working on the content of the book, the authors adhered to the cultural and civilizational concentration of pedagogical knowledge and experience, taking into account the variety of pedagogical guidelines of modern man in solving the cardinal problems of our time. The main idea of ​​the book is that pedagogy, like any developing science, is constantly revising and expanding aspects of understanding its main categories, and in practice it is continuously enriched with the experience of education and training due to the boundlessness and versatility of pedagogical creativity. Expanding the boundaries of traditional pedagogy, the authors used modern historical data, the results of scientific research by teachers and psychologists, as well as world and domestic innovative pedagogical experience in preparing the text. Therefore, the interested reader can immerse himself in the diversity of the semantic field of pedagogy and its purpose.
This publication is to some extent encyclopedic, which means it will be useful to a wide range of readers - from professional teachers, students of higher educational institutions to schoolchildren and their parents. It not only presents various areas of pedagogical science and practice, but also touches upon the social and pedagogical problems that both children and adults face. The book not only deals with the traditional problems of training, upbringing and education in a fairly rich content-semantic variety, but also defines pedagogical guidelines for a modern person who chooses a way to interact with people in certain conditions - in the family, at work, at school or university. , on the street or in the company of peers.
Thus, the book is intended not only for those who have decided to become a teacher (although this is not excluded), but for a wide range of readers, regardless of their profession and occupation. It will be useful to those who themselves strive to become a well-mannered and educated person and have a desire to help other people in this complex process.
Knowledge of the basics, the “basics” of pedagogy, set forth in this book, may also be useful to the reader in order to overcome the difficulties of communication, to consciously choose ways to influence themselves and others for educational purposes in certain life situations, to be ready for upbringing and education their children, and possibly to pedagogical activity. In this regard, we tried to make the book as accessible, attractive and useful as possible, both in content and in the style of presentation of the material.
Is it right to introduce a non-professional into the world of pedagogical science and the problems of education or upbringing? Won't such an approach lead to doubt and confusion? We hope not. And that's why. Firstly, the sphere of upbringing and education, being a priority in the development of the individual, society and the state, has always aroused wide interest in almost every person. And in general, regardless of education, any person, as you know, still considers himself a specialist in pedagogy (as well as, by the way, in politics and medicine). Secondly, the publication is mostly focused on students. And, as you know, the main purpose of higher education is the formation of a student as a person, specialist, citizen, who must be ready for independent reflection, search and dialogue in the process of solving fundamental and applied, vital problems in science and technology. , culture and society. All over the world, not only psychologists and teachers, but also economists, politicians, lawyers, sociologists and many other specialists are engaged in the development of directions and strategic guidelines in the development of such areas as education and upbringing. Moreover, with all the variety of modern educational doctrines, strategies, systems and technologies, it would be very dangerous to single out only invariant or universal ones, because pedagogical creativity and innovative activity continuously “nourish”, enrich and sometimes “shatter” (as seen from history) established ideas or models, dynamizing and developing them. How multifaceted the world is, so diverse is the pedagogical tradition. But at the same time, in the process of spiritual integration of various human communities in a single global educational space, the purposeful search for common ideas and educational strategies does not stop. And this, accordingly, is also reflected in the development of pedagogical science itself - the meanings and content of the main categories, principles and patterns in training and education, pedagogical methods and technologies are refined and enriched.
This book is not a receptacle of indisputable truth, but rather an attempt at a broad discussion and various interpretations of the basic data of pedagogy in the system of human knowledge. Showing how diverse approaches, trends, styles and models in pedagogical science and practice, we do not join any trend or direction, emphasizing the existence of different ways of developing pedagogical ideas. This makes it possible for a teacher who teaches the course "Pedagogy" at a university to place accents in accordance with his own views and choose examples to his liking from a fairly rich and rich in texture "Practice". Thus, the proposed book does not fit into the genre of "recipe" manuals and does not pretend to categorically-conceptual construction of the course in the logic of the presented chapters (they can be read in the author's course in a different sequence). This is an attempt to “elevate” the reader to the level of problematic pedagogical thinking, to introduce him into the circle of the most important pedagogical problems and tasks, to encourage independent reflection and search for special literature (if there is a special interest) for a more in-depth understanding of ways to solve very difficult problems. upbringing and education of a person.
We can say that the material of the manual is maximally deprofessionalized. This is a very important difference between this book and all previous "pedagogy", addressed, as a rule, only to teachers and students of pedagogical educational institutions. When compiling it, precisely those materials were carefully selected, the information that is vital for every educated and cultured person living in the modern multidimensional and diverse world, with different cultural, educational and educational traditions, in a country that is confidently included in world educational space. The specificity of the author's intention, the most important task and the peculiarity of this book is an attempt to integrate general, social and comparative pedagogy, didactics and educational psychology, the history of education and upbringing, and also that we tried to expand the readership as much as possible.
The authors tried not to overload the chapters with material, trying to highlight the most important concepts, pedagogical phenomena and phenomena, making the presentation as accessible and logically consistent as possible. In structuring the content, a deductive approach was mainly used, which made it possible to go from general premises to applied and practical material. Therefore, each chapter includes both theoretical and practical material enriched with examples and pedagogical facts. Numerous applied materials, both included in the text and collected in a special chapter (Chapter VII), orient the reader not so much to receive ready-made recommendations, but mainly to analyze the processes of learning-self-education at school and university, the life practice of education and self-education.
Within the framework of a single approach, the textbook includes materials that are devoted to the subject and semantic field of pedagogy, upbringing and education of a person in the context of history and modernity, actual pedagogical tasks and situations (written by Prof. N. V. Bordovskaya), professional and pedagogical activities, pedagogical mu communication, the personality of the student in the pedagogical process, the development and socialization of the individual in the family and psychological and pedagogical diagnostics (written by a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Education, Prof. A. A. Rean).
All sections of the chapters end with summaries and questionnaires. We consider it important to have a questionnaire after each section to control and self-control the process of understanding and the degree of mastering the proposed material.
The book consists of seven chapters.
The first chapter will help you understand what pedagogy is. It shows the variety of meanings and meanings of this concept, specifies the place of pedagogy in the system of human knowledge in the process of its integration with other human sciences, reveals the dialectics of the development of pedagogy and its polysystemic beginning.
The second and third chapters are aimed at highlighting the main pedagogical categories - upbringing (second chapter) and education (third chapter). An understanding of the essence of these categories is given and their role in the development of the personality and the formation of a person is revealed.
The second chapter is devoted to the problems of human education in a broad cultural and historical context. The main attention is paid to the priority value and target guidelines in the upbringing and self-education of a person, the methods of educational influence on a person, styles and types of education in world and domestic practice. The diversity of educational traditions and educational strategies, methods of education and ways of human interaction accumulated in the world experience is presented.
The third chapter reveals the phenomenon of education as a social phenomenon, as a process of training and education, as an educational system. The nature of the relationship between education and culture, education and self-education is clarified, the peculiarity of education as the optimal way for a person to enter the world of science and culture is noted. The reader will learn about the various types and methods of education in the modern world, about the problems of didactics of secondary and higher schools, about different types and styles of learning.
We hope that a fairly wide and deep awareness of the problems of upbringing and education will allow our readers to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of a particular educational or upbringing model, teaching or upbringing strategy, in which he received his education at school or university. Taking into account the prospects for the future, our readers will be able to more competently assist their children in choosing a school or higher educational institution here, in Russia, or abroad.
In the fourth chapter, much attention is paid to the cultural and historical origins of the development of the school and the university, the features and common features in educational innovations in different countries are shown, and the trends in the development of a single world educational space are also characterized. In this chapter, the reader will join the values ​​and trends in the development of education in the modern world.
The fifth chapter is devoted to the consideration of the essence, structure and patterns of professional and pedagogical activity. Particular attention is paid to pedagogical communication and psychological characteristics of various styles of pedagogical leadership. We also considered it necessary to consider in this chapter such original (at least, not quite traditional for textbooks on pedagogy) questions as pedagogical social perception, that is, questions of the teacher's perception and understanding of the personality of students. Most sections of this chapter contain not only theoretical, but also a lot of factual material, as well as a description of various psychological and pedagogical experiments.
In the sixth chapter, the personality of the student becomes the focus of attention. The phenomenon of social maturity of a personality, the essence and manifestation of such qualities of a mature personality as responsibility, autonomy, tolerance, the need for self-development and others are considered. We turned here not only to the problems of personality development in educational systems, but also to the development and socialization of personality in the family. Much attention is paid in this chapter to the motivation of learning, behavior and career choice. We think that these are central issues, and therefore we have given them a lot of attention here, perhaps even a disproportionate amount, in comparison with other sections of this chapter. However, as one witty person pointed out, three things are needed for successful learning: motivation, motivation, and motivation.
The seventh chapter is a "Workshop", which can be used in group and individual work with students in seminars. Here, methods, tasks and situations are proposed that require the use of a complex of psychological and pedagogical knowledge and skills in the process of working with them. The material will make it possible to realize the variety of ways to solve pedagogical problems and the possibilities for a person to get out of a situation that has pedagogical significance. Pedagogical influence cannot be effective, regardless of any newfangled and original methods and techniques, if this "impact in general", abstract and not individual. Individualization of pedagogical influences and pedagogical communication requires a preliminary adequate study of the child, adolescent, youth as a person and as a subject of activity. Therefore, in our book, and in this chapter, considerable attention is paid to the methods of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics.
This book was conceived as an attempt to satisfy the curiosity of students who can learn from it information about the ways and means of educating a person, about the types and types of education in the world, about the basics and features of education at school and university. Thus, young people will join the elements of pedagogical culture as a component of the general culture of the future specialist in the framework of the implementation of the state educational standard of a modern higher educational institution.
The manual can serve as a basis in the work of teachers of higher educational institutions, arousing interest in the problems and nature of learning, getting an education and finding effective ways to work on oneself on the path of personal and professional development and improvement.
We hope that this book will also help to strengthen the positions of pedagogy in the general system of preparing a person for a humane and competent solution of vital tasks in the “man-man” system.

The textbook is a compact and highly informative essay on psychology and pedagogy. This book is conceived as an attempt to satisfy the curiosity and need of students for knowledge about human psychology, the mechanisms and patterns of memory, attention, thinking, about psychological factors and characteristics of behavior, communication and personality activities, about the ways and means of educating a person, about the types and types of education in the world, about the basics and features of education at school and university.

This idea was also "consecrated" with the aim of introducing students to the elements of psychological and pedagogical culture, as a component of the general culture of the future specialist. The manual is designed for university students of all specialties, as well as graduate students and teachers, and corresponds to the program of the course "Psychology and Pedagogy" within the framework of the Federal Educational Standard of a Specialist.

Chapter 1 SPHERE OF PSYCHOLOGY.

"What is psychology?" - this is the name of one of the major modern manuals on psychology (Godefroy J., 1992). The very title of a solid textbook seems to express some bewilderment about this mysterious and in many ways contradictory discipline. It is indeed not easy for a person entering this area of ​​human knowledge for the first time to bring together into a single whole that heterogeneous mass of facts, hypotheses, concepts that fill articles, textbooks, manuals, monographs, popular scientific publications on psychology, parapsychological literature that has recently flooded bookstores. counters, not to mention artistic psychological prose saturated with collisions of human relations.

1.2. The specific nature of psychological phenomena.

As mentioned above, the complexity of mastering the system of psychological concepts is determined by the specifics of the subject of psychology. This specificity lies in the fact that each person, when getting acquainted with the data of psychology, being a bearer of the psyche and having the opportunity to observe the phenomena under discussion "from the inside", can, it seems, act as an "expert" in verifying the stated provisions. This verification is not always successful, and the results are convincing due to the fact that in order to obtain an unambiguous result in psychology, it is very often necessary to observe and take into account a large number of conditions.

Practically any psychological phenomenon, any psychological effect is the result of many objective and subjective factors, and therefore their reproduction requires careful organization. When reading psychological literature, there is often a temptation to argue, because it is enough to change one of the conditions, and the result can be just the opposite.

In this regard, I would like to emphasize: in psychology, almost any statement is true only in the context of the conditions described in this case. Everything that is said should be taken into account. The psyche is a very subtle instrument of adaptation to the environment. Its mechanisms work smoothly, harmoniously and mostly imperceptibly for the subject. Figuratively speaking, it is important for the psyche to give the subject a reliable result, without diverting his attention to the procedure and process of obtaining this result.

The accuracy and efficiency of a person's practical activity is precisely ensured by the "transparency" of mental processes, the direct givenness of their results. In everyday life, we "do not see" many mental phenomena, just as we do not see well-polished glasses when reading. The psyche in the context under consideration can be likened to a well-oiled technical device, the details of which and their purpose you pay attention to only when they start to work poorly or completely fail.

Moreover, in the human psyche there are special mechanisms that actively prevent the subject from realizing some of the processes taking place in his “internal economy”. In this regard, all the more so, not everything that is affirmed in psychology can be immediately perceived, realized and understood by comparing these statements with the experience gained as a result of observing oneself and analyzing one's experiences. By the way, experiences in psychology mean not only emotions about some event, but also any event that is directly represented in the mind of the subject at the moment.

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1. The field of psychology
1.1. Conceptual and terminological apparatus of psychology
1.2. The Specific Character of Psychological Phenomena
1.3. Definition of the psyche
1.4. Definition of the subject of psychology
1.5. Types and methods of obtaining psychological knowledge
Summary

CHAPTER 2. Biological foundations of the psyche
2.1. Body and mind
2.2. Brain and psyche
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 3. Cognitive mental processes
3.1. Feeling
3.2. Perception
3.3. Thinking
3.4. Memory
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 4. Language and consciousness
4.1. Category of consciousness in psychology
4.2. The Category of Meaning and Consciousness
4.3. Hypothesis of linguistic relativity
4.4. Development of individual consciousness
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 5. Emotions
5.1. Definition of emotions
5.2. Dual nature of emotions
5.3. Forms of emotions
5.4. Functions of emotions
5.5. Classification of emotions
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 6. Personality in psychology
6.1. The concept of "personality"
6.2. Personality socialization
6.3. I personality concept
6.4. Social maturity of the individual
6.5. Some models of personality
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 7. Motivation
7.1. Motivation in the structure of personality
7.2. Motivation for success and motivation for fear of failure
7.3. Professional motivation
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 8. Character
8.1. The concept of character
8.2. Character accentuations
8.3. Types of accentuations
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 9. Activities and abilities
9.1. Category of activity in psychology
9.2. Macrostructure of activity
9.3. Internal structure of activity
9.4. Activities and abilities
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 10 Communication
10.1. Communication as a category of psychology
10.2. Rules and techniques of communication
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
Literature for the section "Psychology"
CHAPTER 11
11.1. The origins of the origin of pedagogy and the stages of its development
11.2. Teaching practice
11.3. Pedagogy as a science
11.4. General cultural significance of pedagogy
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 12
12.1. Man as a subject of education
12.2. Ways of educational influence on a person
12.3. Types of parenting
12.4. Parenting patterns and styles
12.5. Multicultural education. Educational systems: foreign and domestic experience
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 13
13.1. Education as a way for a person to enter the world of science and culture
13.2. Education as a system and process
13.3. Characteristics of the learning process
13.4. Forms of organization of education at school and university
13.5. Didactic theories and concepts
13.6. History and modernity
13.7. Modern world educational space
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 14. Professional and pedagogical activity
14.1. Essence and structure of pedagogical activity
14.2. Pedagogical communication
14.3. Styles of pedagogical leadership
14.4. Cognition of the personality of students
Summary
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 15. Personality of the student in the pedagogical process
15.1. Educational systems and personal development
15.2. Motivation for learning and choosing a profession
15.3. Autonomy - the dependence of the individual in educational activities
15.4. Development and socialization of personality in the family
Questions and tasks for self-control
CHAPTER 16. Pedagogical tasks and situations. Workshop
16.1. Pedagogical tasks
16.2. Pedagogical situations
CHAPTER 17. Methods of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics. Workshop
17.1. Diagnosis of personality orientation
17.2. Motivation of professional activity (method of K. Zamfir modified by A. Rean)
17.3. The study of self-esteem of the individual
17. 4. Diagnosis and training of pedagogical insight
17.5. Test "Transactional analysis of communication"
17.6. Methodology for assessing ways to respond to a conflict (K.N. Thomas)
17.7. Methodology for diagnosing the socio-psychological climate of the team
17.8. Test "Individual's perception of the group"
Literature for the section "Pedagogy"