The Middle Ages is a broad period of development of European society, spanning the 5th to 15th centuries AD. The era began after the fall of the great Roman Empire and ended with the beginning of the industrial revolution in England. Over these ten centuries, Europe has come a long way of development, characterized by the great migration of peoples, the formation of the main European states and the appearance of the most beautiful historical monuments - Gothic cathedrals.

What is characteristic of medieval society

Each historical era has its own unique features. The historical period under consideration is no exception.

The Middle Ages is:

• agricultural economy - most people worked in agriculture;
• the predominance of the rural population over the urban (especially in the early period);
• the huge role of the church;
• observance of Christian commandments;
• Crusades;
• feudalism;
• the formation of nation states;
• culture: Gothic cathedrals, folklore, poetry.

The Middle Ages - what centuries are they?

The era is divided into three large periods:

• Early - 5th-10th centuries. n. e.
• High - 10-14th centuries. n. e.
• Later - 14-15th (16th) centuries. n. e.

The question “The Middle Ages - what centuries are these?” does not have a clear answer, there are only approximate figures - the points of view of one or another group of historians.

The three periods are seriously different from each other: at the very beginning of the new era, Europe was going through a time of troubles - a time of instability and fragmentation; at the end of the 15th century, a society with its characteristic cultural and traditional values ​​was formed.

The eternal dispute between official science and alternative science

Sometimes you can hear the statement: “Antiquity is the Middle Ages.” An educated person will clutch his head when he hears such a misconception. Official science believes that the Middle Ages is the era that began after the capture of the Western Roman Empire by barbarians in the 5th century. n. e.

However, alternative historians (Fomenko) do not share the point of view of official science. In their circle you can hear the statement: “Antiquity is the Middle Ages.” This will be said not from ignorance, but from a different point of view. Who to believe and who not is up to you to decide. We share the point of view of official history.

How it all began: the collapse of the great Roman Empire

The capture of Rome by barbarians is a serious historical event that marked the beginning of an era

The empire existed for 12 centuries, during which time invaluable experience and knowledge of people were accumulated, who sank into oblivion after the Ostrogoths, Huns and Gauls captured its western part (476 AD).

The process was gradual: first, the captured provinces left the control of Rome, and then the center fell. The eastern part of the empire, with its capital at Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), lasted until the 15th century.

After the capture and sack of Rome by barbarians, Europe plunged into the Dark Ages. Despite significant setbacks and turmoil, the tribes were able to reunite, create separate states and a unique culture.

The early Middle Ages is the era of the “dark ages”: 5-10th centuries. n. e.

During this period, the provinces of the former Roman Empire became sovereign states; the leaders of the Huns, Goths and Franks declared themselves dukes, counts and other serious titles. Surprisingly, people believed the most authoritative figures and accepted their power.

As it turned out, the barbarian tribes were not as wild as one might imagine: they had the beginnings of statehood and knew metallurgy at a primitive level.

This period is also notable for the formation of three classes:

• clergy;
• nobility;
• people.

The people included peasants, artisans and merchants. More than 90% of people lived in villages and worked in the fields. The type of farming was agricultural.

High Middle Ages - 10th-14th centuries. n. e.

The period of flourishing culture. First of all, it is characterized by the formation of a certain worldview, characteristic of medieval man. My horizons expanded: an idea of ​​beauty appeared, that there is meaning in existence, and that the world is beautiful and harmonious.

Religion played a huge role - people worshiped God, went to church and tried to follow biblical values.

A stable trade relationship was established between the West and the East: traders and travelers returned from distant countries, bringing porcelain, carpets, spices and new impressions of exotic Asian countries. All this contributed to the general increase in the education of Europeans.

It was during this period that the image of a male knight appeared, who to this day is the ideal of most girls. However, there are certain nuances here that show the ambiguity of his figure. On the one hand, the knight was a brave and brave warrior who swore allegiance to the bishop to protect his country. At the same time, he was quite cruel and unprincipled - this is the only way to fight hordes of wild barbarians.

He definitely had a “lady of his heart” for whom he fought. To summarize, we can say that a knight is a very contradictory figure, consisting of virtues and vices.

Late Middle Ages - 14-15th (16th) centuries. n. e.

Western historians consider Columbus's discovery of America (October 12, 1492) to be the end of the Middle Ages. Russian historians have a different opinion - the beginning of the industrial revolution in the 16th century.

The autumn of the Middle Ages (the second name for the late era) was characterized by the formation of large cities. Large-scale peasant uprisings also took place - as a result, this class became free.

Europe suffered serious human losses due to the plague epidemic. This disease took many lives, the population of some cities was halved.

The Late Middle Ages is the period of the logical conclusion of a rich era of European history that lasted about a millennium.

The Hundred Years' War: the image of Joan of Arc

The Late Middle Ages also included a conflict between England and France that lasted more than a hundred years.

A serious event that set the vector for the development of Europe was the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). It was not quite a war and not quite a century. It is more logical to call this historical event a confrontation between England and France, sometimes moving into an active phase.

It all started with a dispute over Flanders, when the king of England began to lay claim to the French crown. At first, Great Britain was successful: small peasant detachments of archers defeated the French knights. But then a miracle happened: Joan of Arc was born.

This slender girl with a masculine posture was well brought up and from her youth she understood military affairs. She managed to spiritually unite the French and repel England due to two things:

• she sincerely believed that it was possible;
• she called for the unification of all French in the face of the enemy.

There was a victory for France, and Joan of Arc went down in history as a national heroine.

The Middle Ages ended with the formation of most European states and the formation of European society.

Results of the era for European civilization

The historical period of the Middle Ages is a thousand interesting years of the development of Western civilization. If the same person had visited first the beginning of the Middle Ages and then moved to the 15th century, he would not have recognized the same place, so significant were the changes that had occurred.

Let us briefly list the main results of the Middle Ages:

• the emergence of large cities;
• the spread of universities across Europe;
• adoption of Christianity by the majority of European residents;
• scholasticism of Aurelius Augustine and Thomas Aquinas;
• the unique culture of the Middle Ages is architecture, literature and painting;
• readiness of Western European society for a new stage of development.

Culture of the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages is primarily a characteristic culture. It refers to a broad concept that includes the intangible and material achievements of the people of that era. These include:

• architecture;
• literature;
• painting.

Architecture

It was during this era that many famous European cathedrals were rebuilt. Medieval masters created architectural masterpieces in two characteristic styles: Romanesque and Gothic.

The first originated in the 11th-13th centuries. This architectural direction was distinguished by rigor and severity. Temples and castles in the Romanesque style still inspire a feeling of the dark Middle Ages. The most famous is Bamberg Cathedral.

Literature

European literature of the Middle Ages is a symbiosis of Christian lyrics, ancient thought and folk epic. No genre of world literature can be compared with the books and ballads written by medieval writers.

The stories about the battles alone are worth it! An interesting phenomenon often occurred: people participating in major medieval battles (for example, the Battle of Hanstings) involuntarily became writers: they were the first eyewitnesses of the events that took place.

The Middle Ages is an era of beautiful and chivalrous literature. You can learn about the way of life, customs and traditions of people from the books of writers.

Painting

Cities grew, cathedrals were built, and accordingly, there was a demand for decorative decoration of buildings. At first this concerned large city buildings, and then the houses of wealthy people.

The Middle Ages is the period of formation of European painting.

Most of the paintings depicted well-known biblical scenes - the Virgin Mary and Child, the Whore of Babylon, the Annunciation, etc. Triptychs (three small paintings in one) and diptrichs (two paintings in one) became widespread. Artists painted the walls of chapels and town halls, and painted stained glass windows for churches.

Medieval painting is inextricably linked with Christianity and the worship of the Virgin Mary. Masters depicted her in different ways: but one thing can be said - these paintings are amazing.

The Middle Ages is the time between Antiquity and Modern History. It was this era that paved the way for the beginning of the industrial revolution and great geographical discoveries.

401 - 402
The invasion of Italy by the Visigoth king Alaric ended in his defeat at Pollentia.

406
Invasion of barbarians into Gaul.

407
The Romans lost Britain.

408
Murder of Stilicho.

408.autumn
The Visigoth leader Alaric besieged Rome again and caused panic there. The Romans collected money and bought peace from Alaric. He agreed and lifted the siege.

408-450
Theodosius II - Emperor in the East.

409
Invasion of the Vandals, Alans and Suevi in ​​Spain.

410

410.08.23
The Visigoths took Rome, abandoned by the emperor, and brutally plundered it.

410
The Visigoth leader Alaric took and sacked Rome.

410
Honorius tells Britain that she must defend herself.

410
Alaric died unexpectedly at the age of 34. Ataulf, Alaric's nephew, became the king of the Goths.

412
The Visigoths, led by Ataulf, invaded Gaul.

418
In Aquitaine (a province of the empire from 52 BC), a barbarian state of the Visigoths was formed on the territory of the empire. Considered allied with Rome.

425
The reign of Emperor Valentinian III began (from 425 to 455).

429
The Vandals captured (from 429 to 439) Africa (a province of the empire that arose in 146 BC). The kingdom of the Vandals was formed.

430
Augustine died.

431
Ephesus Cathedral.

435
Rome recognized the Vandal state as its ally and appointed them an annual tax.

438
Codex Theodosius.

439
The Vandals took Carthage.

449
The Anglo-Saxons began to conquer Britain.

450-457
Marcian is the emperor in the East.

451.06
In the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields, the anti-Hunnic coalition (Franks, Alans, Armoricans, Burgundians, Visigoths, Saxons, Letians, Riparii) under the command of the Roman commander Flavius ​​Aetius defeated the Huns. Losses on both sides amounted to 165,000 soldiers (or 300,000).

452
Attila embarked on a campaign to Italy.

453
Death of Attila. The state of the Huns finally collapsed.

454
Murder of Aetius. The Ostrogoths settle in Panionia.

455
Maxim is the emperor in the West.

455
The Vandals, led by Geiseric, subjected Rome to a 14-day defeat. Everything that could not be taken with them was destroyed.

455-456
Avit is the emperor in the West.

457-474
Leo 1 is the emperor in the East.

457-461
Majorian is an emperor in the West.

461
The assassination of Julius Majorian, the last emperor who tried to keep the empire from collapse.

467-472
Antemius is the emperor in the West.

472
Capture of Rome by Ricimer.

474-475
Zeno is the emperor in the East.

475-476
Romulus Augustulus - Emperor in the West.

476-491
Zeno is again the emperor in the East.

476
Zeno is the emperor of the Eastern and Western Roman Empire.

476
The commander of the imperial guard, the Skyr (German) Odoacer, deposed the 16-year-old emperor Augustulus Romulus, destroyed the institution of the empire, and sent the signs of imperial dignity to Constantinople. Proclaimed himself king of Italy. This date is considered to be the turn of the ages - the end of the ancient world and the beginning of the Middle Ages.

477
The Saxons landed in Britain. And before that, people from Britain - the Britons - moved to the continent - to the north-west. modern France.

481
Clovis began to rule the Franks (from 481 to 511).

486
The Franks captured the last Roman possessions in Gaul.

491
The Saxons founded modern times in the southeast. England kingdom of Sussex.

493
The Ostrogoths completely conquered Italy. Odoacer, who became ruler of Italy in 476, was killed by Theodoric. The kingdom of the Ostrogoths arose (from 493 to 554).

496
The Frankish king Clovis (from 481 to 511) converted to Christianity in the Catholic form.

497
The Franks occupied Paris.

Option No. 3. OZ FIPI

Part 1

The answers to tasks 1-24 are a figure (number) or a word (several words), a sequence of numbers (numbers). Write the answer in the answer field in the text of the work, and then transfer it to ANSWER FORM No. 1 to the right of the task number, starting from the first cell, without spaces, commas and other additional characters. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

Read the text and complete tasks 1-3.

((1)Starting from the 5th century BC there has been a flourishing of ancient Greek
and ancient Roman civilizations, marked by a relatively high level of development of philosophy, literature, fine arts, architecture, and military art. (2) During this period, the accumulation of initial scientific information about the world around us continued, a number of ideas were put forward, which, as further developments showed, were far ahead of their time. (3)<…>the idea was put forwardabout the structure of the universe, the idea of ​​the atomic structure of matter was discussed for the first time, the foundations of geometry were developed, and a geocentric model of the world was created.

2 Which of the following words (combinations of words) should appear in the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).

However

For example,

Despite this,

That's why

Contrary to this

Answer: ___________________________.

4. In one of the words below there is an error in the emphasis:WRONG The letter denoting the stressed vowel sound is highlighted. Write out this word.

bows

will make it easier

droveA

for a little while

beet

Answer: ___________________________.

5. In one of the sentences belowWRONG The highlighted word is used.Correct the lexical error by choosing a paronym for the highlighted word. Write down the chosen word.

My friend is quite a DIPLOMATIC person.

Every step caused Meresyev UNBEARABLE pain.

The head of the city congratulated the actors of the drama theater, noting their excellent PERFORMANCE skills.

The rare beauty inherent in the Karelian Isthmus is created by ROYAL forests, towering over picturesque reservoirs.

After sowing and during the period of intensive growth of seedlings, ROOT fertilizing is carried out to maintain the active life of plants.

Answer: ___________________________.

6. In one of the words highlighted below, an error was made in the formation of the word form.Correct the mistake Andwrite the word correctly.

in EIGHT HUNDRED AND TWENTY

factory PRESSES

picture MORE BEAUTIFUL

CUT HAIR

our PASSPORTS

Answer: ___________________________.

7. Match grammatical errors with

sentences in which they are admitted: to each position of the first

column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

8. Identify the word in which the unstressed alternating vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.

unintelligible..rich

d..differentiate

ut...picky

unique

pr..tend

Answer: ___________________________.

9 . Identify the row in which the same letter is missing in both words. Write out these words by inserting the missing letter.

on..bit, on..dragged

be..delieu, in..swim

pr..funny, pr..call

once..rocks, on..play

pr..refuge, pr..hail

Answer: ___________________________.

10. AND .

adapt

bluish

chronicler..ts

letter..tso

biological..ski

Answer: ___________________________.

11. Write down the word in which a letter is written in place of the gapI.

(they) are closed

thinker (person)

loader (gun)

(flags) re..t

(well) understanding

Answer: ___________________________.

12 . Identify the sentence in which NOT is written with the wordFULL .

Open the brackets and write down this word.

(NOT) WHY think about what cannot be corrected or returned.

His facial features were small, (NOT) REFLECTING the entire complexity of his soul.

This settlement is (NOT) MARKED on the tourist map.

Savka’s choice of occupation for himself was by no means (NOT) SIMPLE.

There are many species of plants that live next to humans and are (NOT) NOTICED by them.

Answer: ___________________________.

13. Identify the sentence in which both highlighted words are written

FULL . Open the brackets and write down these two words.

(C) FOR many days, a strong volcanic eruption continued, clouds of fire above which swirled (Like a whirlwind), increasing in size.

(BY) the way this person carries himself, it is clear that he is (IN) EVERYTHING used to being the first.

Lake Beloye (FROM) is charming because (IN) AROUND it there is dense, varied vegetation.

It’s hard to even imagine WHAT WOULD happen to me IF the ship was late.

(BY) BECAUSE L.N. was silent in concentration. Tolstoy, his relatives could guess (HOW) HOW hard his brain is working now

Petya shuddered, (FROM) the fact that the doorbell rang, his mother did not expect the call.

Answer: ___________________________.

14. Indicate all the numbers in whose place it is writtenNN.

Subsequently, I found in the storeroom some unusual (1) manuscripts, bound (2) in volumes and written (3) in Latin.

Answer: ___________________________.

15. Place punctuation marks. Specify two sentences in which you need to putONE comma. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

16 . Place punctuation marks:

The walls of the house (1), updated with paint (2) and cornices painted around the entire perimeter (3) lined with a bright border of tiles (4), look festive.

Answer: ___________________________.

17. Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in their place

There must be commas in the sentence.

Some contemporaries were outraged by the use

A. S. Pushkin common words in contexts where (1) according to critics (2) the words “high” should have been used. However (3) Pushkin resolutely rejected the concept of “low matter”.

Answer: ___________________________.

18. Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in their place

There must be commas in the sentence.

Each book (1) you study (2) that (3) you will have during the school year (4) is a treasure trove of knowledge.

Answer: ___________________________.

19. Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in their place

V sentences must contain commas.

I was finally convinced that (1) I was completely lost (2)
and went at random to (3) where the fields stretched endlessly.

Answer: ___________________________.

Read the text and complete tasks 20-25.

(1) There are such remote and secluded places on our river that when you make your way through tangled forest thickets, also filled with nettles, and sit down near the water, you will feel as if you are in a world fenced off from the rest of the earthly space.

(2) The bird cherry’s future berries have grown to their size. (3) Now they are smooth, hard, just like they were carved from green bone and polished. (4) The leaves of the willow tree are turned either with their bright green side, or with their reverse, matte, silver side, which is why the whole tree, its entire crown, all, so to speak, a spot in the overall picture seems light. (5) Grasses grow at the water’s edge, leaning to the side. (6) It even seems that further on the grasses are standing on tiptoes, stretching with all their might, so that they are sure to at least
from behind your shoulders, look into the water. (7) There are nettles here, and tall umbrella plants, the names of which no one here knows.

(8) But most of all, our closed earthly little world is decorated with a certain tall plant with lush white flowers. (9) That is, each flower individually is very small and would be completely invisible, but the flowers gather on the stem in countless numbers and form a lush, white, slightly yellowish cap of the plant. (10) And since its stems never grow alone, the lush caps merge, and now it’s like a white cloud dozing among the motionless forest grass. (11) It is also impossible not to admire this plant because as soon as the sun warms up, invisible clouds of a strong honey aroma float from the white flower cloud in all directions.

(12) Looking at the white lush clouds of flowers, I often thought about the absurdity of the situation. (13) I grew up on this river, they taught me something at school. (14) I see these flowers every time, and I don’t just see them, but I distinguish them from all other flowers. (15) But ask me what they are called - I don’t know, for some reason I have never heard their names from other people who also grew up here. (16) Dandelion, chamomile, cornflower, plantain, bellflower, lily of the valley - we still have enough for that. (17) We can still call these plants by name. (18) However, why generalize right away - maybe I’m the only one who doesn’t know? (19) No, no matter who I asked in the village, showing white flowers, everyone shrugged:

- (20) Who knows! (21) There are plenty of them growing: both on the river and in forest ravines. (22) What are they called?.. (23) What do you care? (24) Flowers and flowers, you can’t reap them, don’t thresh them. (25) You can smell it without a name.

(26) Actually, I would say, we are a little indifferent to everything that surrounds us on earth. (27) No, no, of course, we often say that we love nature: these copses, and hills, and springs, and fire-filled, warm summer sunsets halfway across the sky. (28) Well, collect a bouquet of flowers, and, of course, listen to the singing of the birds, to their chirping in the golden forest tops at a time when the forest itself is still full of dark green, almost black coolness. (29) Well, go mushroom picking, and fish, and just lie on the grass, looking up at the floating clouds.

“(30) Listen, what is the name of the grass on which you are now lying so thoughtlessly and so blissfully?” - “(31) That is, how is it like? (32) Grass. (33) Well there... some wheatgrass or dandelion.” - “(34) What kind of wheatgrass is this? (35) There is no wheatgrass here at all. (36) Take a closer look. (37) In the place that you occupied with your body, about two dozen different herbs grow, and each of them is interesting in some way: either for their way of life, or for their healing properties for humans. (38) However, this seems to be a subtlety incomprehensible to our minds.”

(According to V.A. Soloukhin*)

* Vladimir Alekseevich Soloukhin (1924-1997) - Russian Soviet writer and poet, a prominent representative of “village prose”.

20 . Which of the statements correspond to the content of the text? Please provide answer numbers.

Beginning of the form

End of form

Beginning of the form

End of form

Beginning of the form

End of form

Beginning of the form

End of form

Beginning of the form

21. Which of the following statements are true? Please provide answer numbers.

Answer: ___________________________.

22 From sentences 1- 3 write down contextual synonyms.

Answer: ___________________________.

23 There are 5 offers- 10 find one that is connected to the previous one using a conjunction, a possessive pronoun and word forms. Write the number of this offer.

Answer: ___________________________.

Read a fragment of a review based on the text that you analyzed while completing tasks 20-23.

This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text.

Some terms used in the review are missing. Insert into the blanks (A, B, C, D) the numbers corresponding to the numbers of the terms from the list. Write down the corresponding number in the table under each letter.

Write down the sequence of numbers in ANSWER FORM No. 1 to the right of

task numbers 24, starting from the first cell, without spaces, commas

and other additional characters.

Write each number in accordance with those given in the form.

samples.

24 “Various means of expression help V.A. Soloukhin to convey his attitude towards his native places. The author’s poetry is manifested in the use of such tropes as (A)__________ (“the leaves of the willow tree are turned...silver side" in sentence 4, "in gold forest tops" in sentence 28) and (B)__________ (“the grasses stand on tiptoe... to... look at the water” in sentence 6, “a white cloud sleeps among... the grass” in sentence 10).Syntactic device − (B)__________ (sentences 16, 27) and technique − (D)__________ (sentences 28−29) help the author express his ideas
about what should be the attitude towards our native nature.”

Do not forget to transfer all answers to answer form No. 1 in accordance with the instructions for completing the work. End of form

Part 2

To answer this task, use ANSWER FORM No. 2.

25. Write an essay based on the text you read.

Option No. 3. OZ FIPI

Answers

The ancient Greeks gave the name keltoi barbarian peoples of Central Europe, who, starting from the fifth century BC, terrorized the city-states of the Mediterranean with their raids. By the end of the fifth century BC, the Celtic tribes settled in the west in Gaul, Britain and Ireland, reached Iberia in the southwest, northern Italy in the south, and the Balkans and Asia Minor in the east. “Celts” were now called the Helvetii, who lived in the territory now occupied by Switzerland, and the Boii, who lived in the lands of present-day Italy, and the Averni, who lived in today’s France, and the Scordixi of present-day Serbia. Nineteenth-century historians wrote many works searching for supposed differences between their “Celtic” and “Germanic” roots, but modern research leads us to the conclusion that they all originally belonged to a common northern European tradition and only split into separate linguistic groups after as they were geographically divided by the Romans. We understand by the word “Celts” the various native peoples of northwestern Europe, colonized, with the exception of the Irish, by Rome, and therefore “cut off” by the borders of the Roman Empire from the “Germanic” tribes living east of the Rhine and north of the Danube.

The Celtic civilization formed around 700 BC. e. on the territory of present-day Austria - the so-called Hallstatt culture. Its main wealth was salt, which the population exchanged for various goods with the Greeks and Etruscans. Around 500 BC e., at the beginning of the La Tène period, islands of Celtic civilization appeared in the northeast of France and in the middle reaches of the Rhine. Soon after this, the Celtic tribes began to move. They invaded the Apennine Peninsula, drove the Etruscans out of the Po River valley, in the fifth century BC. founded the city of Milan and in 390 BC n. e. sacked Rome. Their influence reached its greatest extent around 260 BC. e.; and they were considered one of the three largest barbarian peoples of Europe, along with the Scythians and Persians. From the seventh century BC, the Celts began to explore Gaul, where, starting from the third century, they led, under Roman influence, a semi-sedentary lifestyle in cities, and began to trade, traveling throughout Europe, buying, selling, and often simply taking goods . In the sixth century BC and in certain periods after the Celts settled Britain, and in the third - part of Spain. At the same time, they colonized the coast of Dalmatia (part of the territory until recently occupied by Yugoslavia), Thrace (modern Bulgaria) and part of Asia Minor, where they became known as the Galatians. Strabo reports that the Celts were distinguished by their temper, courage, readiness to enter into battle at any moment, and were by no means so uncouth and rude (Strabo, XII. 5). Under the name of Galatians (?), they served as mercenaries, for example, with the Sicilian tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse (early fifth century BC), with the Macedonians, including Alexander the Great (336-323 BC), and, later, by Hannibal (247-182 BC).

The third century BC witnessed a fierce struggle between the peoples of the Mediterranean against the Celts. In 225 BC. e. the population of Italy, under the leadership of Rome, repelled the invasion of the Celts, and in 201 BC. e., after the defeat of the Carthaginians by Hannibal, Rome cleared the Po River valley of Celtic settlers and began to exterminate or enslave the barbarian tribes: Cenomanians, Insubres, Boii. Roman expansion in Spain and Gaul began after the capture of the Carthaginian garrisons in Spain and southern France during the Second Punic War and ended two centuries later with the final conquest of the north-west of the peninsula during the reign of Augustus. At the beginning of the third century BC, the Celts attacked Macedonia and Greece, but were defeated at Delphi in 279, after which Apollo, the Delphic god, became the eternal symbol of the victory of civilization over barbarism.

Nevertheless, the nomadic Celts and the sedentary cultures of the south were in contact with each other. Cultural exchange with Mediterranean civilizations at first apparently proceeded exclusively in a one-way form. Starting around 650 BC. e., the Celts, having come into contact with the Greeks and Etruscans, gradually absorbed elements of Mediterranean culture. This is how a special Celtic style of art arose, which combined the original Central European Hallstatt style and modified Greek (Etruscan) motifs. Apparently, the plastic art of the Greeks and Etruscans had a much less significant influence on the unique Celtic style than its more abstract decorative elements. Despite contacts with the Greeks and Etruscans, who already had writing, the Celts did not acquire their own written language. Therefore, the names of the Celtic gods and the religious meaning of works of art are known to us only from a relatively late period, after the Roman conquest. The Celts were distinguished by deep reverence for the spoken word: bards were revered members of society, Druids preserved and passed on knowledge, possessing a superbly developed memory. In the first century BC, after the final conquest of the Po Valley by Rome, this previously Celtic land gave birth to many outstanding writers, including Catullus, Cato, Varro, Virgil and many others. Much later, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, the provinces of Spain and what is now southern France, ruled by Visigothic kings, could also become real strongholds of Roman art, literature and culture.

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The influence of human activity on the environment. Fundamentals of physiology, occupational hygiene and industrial sanitation. Safety Basics. Labor protection in the industry. Atmospheric dust and occupational diseases.

abstract, added 11/10/2003


Industrial sanitation and occupational hygiene. Fundamentals of labor physiology. Forms of labor activity. Main types of mental work. Factors determining working conditions. Principles of hygienic regulation. Preventive and health measures.

abstract, added 03/14/2009


The history of the origin and prevalence at the present stage of the yogi health system, its structure and main tasks. Methodology for personal hygiene procedures according to the principles of yoga and internal hygiene of the body. Examples of special therapeutic diets.