History of chronology: lunar calendar. History of the calendar Tenth lunar day
Moon calendar - this is a type of calendar, which is based on the period of changing phases of the Moon, that is, the synodic month. Professional astrologers, using the lunar calendar, pay attention to the Zodiac sign in which the Moon is located, the lunar day (the period from sunrise to the next rise of the Moon in the sky) and many other nuances of the location of the Earth’s satellite and other planets of the solar system in relation to it.
How can a person without astrological knowledge and skills use the lunar calendar?
We have collected all the necessary data and prepared for you a calendar with the most complete list of specific astrological recommendations! In a convenient form, the usual and ordinary calendar combines dates, the state of the Moon at that moment and favorable and unfavorable actions for each lunar day. Try it now or read the short instructions below:
1.
In the general view of the calendar you will find phase of the moon and number of lunar days, corresponding to a specific date. But, if you want more information about any of the days, just click on it.
Included in the description of the day general characteristics of lunar days – their mood, element, energy, lucky colors and talismans; specified Zodiac sign, in which the Moon resides, its phase and, of course, the duration of a given lunar day. Then, there are tips by category: “+” – what the Moon favors on this day; “-” – something that is better to transfer to another:
2.
If you are interested in a specific category and do not want to read tips on others, just click on the calendar of the relevant topic in the list on the left.
3.
To schedule, for example, a haircut for the next month, or check yourself in the past, scroll through the calendar using the arrows.
4.
Just like on the general calendar, on all calendars from the list you can click on the bottom to get recommendations for it.
5.
That's all!
P.S. Now you can always call up help in the calendar by clicking on the question mark in the top menu.
The moon smiles mysteriously at us from the night sky or hides, obeying its special routine. It can be full, decreasing and growing. The ebb and flow of the seas and oceans, human behavior and character, and the growth of all living things depend on the Moon. And the lunar calendar can not only tell you what lunar day it is today, but also give special recommendations.
So what is the lunar calendar?!
Difference between the lunar calendar and the solar calendar
Moon calendar – parent of the time calculus. It was the phases of the moon that became the reason for dividing the year into months - from one new moon to the next. Later, astronomers made clarifying amendments and separated the solar calendar, according to which the whole world now lives, from the lunar calendar.
In the lunar calendar, unlike the solar one, there are not 30 or 31 days, but 29.5 or 30.
A solar day is exactly 24 hours, but a lunar day does not have a clear duration - they can last from a few moments - this is, as a rule, either the 30th or the 1st lunar day - up to 2 days.
According to the solar calendar, we consider midnight (more precisely, one second of the first) to be the beginning of a new day, and according to the lunar calendar, the next day begins with the rising of the Moon. And this can happen at any hour of the day or night.
The sun is in the same zodiac sign about a month (everything is clear and recorded in horoscopes), and the Moon travels through the zodiac, staying in one sign for no more than three days. And this is also reflected in the lunar calendar. However, if it is not difficult for us to find out what sign the Sun was in at the time of our birth, then in order to find out what sign the Moon was in, we need to make complex calculations. Or use a special computer program.
The Sun does not have its own personal phases, it is constant, so we never say, for example, the growing Sun. And the Moon goes through four phases during its lunar month: new moon, 1st quarter (waxing Moon), full moon, 4th quarter (waning Moon). And each phase corresponds to its own processes and events occurring on the Earth itself and with its inhabitants.
The solar year is 365 or 366 days, and the lunar year is 354 or 355 days. Thus, every year the lunar calendar lags behind the solar calendar by an average of 10 days. And it is possible that it was precisely this “lateness” that forced ancient scientists to abandon lunar chronology. Otherwise, our usual months would wander throughout the year.
What the lunar calendar “can”
Despite the fact that in everyday life we do not count time according to the lunar calendar, it has a huge influence on us. And if you know the peculiarities of the “behavior” of the Moon, then you can make your life more harmonious and successful. After all, the Moon has such powerful energy that it is simply impossible to ignore it.
However, in one short article it is physically impossible to describe all aspects of the lunar calendar, so we will focus on the main points.
During the waxing moon, the legs are the first to “activate”, and by the full moon the energy reaches the head. And that is why at this time we are visited by excellent ideas or, on the contrary, a weak brain malfunctions, that is, during the full moon both geniuses and maniacs mobilize their strength. By the way, everything is the same in plants - during the new moon all the juices are in the roots, and by the full moon they rise to the very top.
Two days before the new moon and for two days after it, you need to conserve your strength - the Moon has sucked out your vital activity. And at the same time, a person is most vulnerable to the influence of negative energy or, as they also say, to dark forces.
What is a lunar calendar?
On the waxing Moon it is recommended to start new things, and on the waning Moon to finish what has already been started. Even money It’s better to invest based on the position of the Moon and what sign it is in.
From the new moon to the full moon, hair and nails grow rapidly, vital organs actively function and, accordingly, performance increases. And then all life processes slow down. And that is why ancient doctors recommended removing anything during the waning moon, avoiding surgery during the full moon, and trying to rest during the new moon.
Moreover, each lunar day has its own name and has its own unique properties. On some lunar days it’s good to make plans, on others it’s good to part with the past, on others it’s good to get a haircut, arrange fasting days, eat up, stock up on energy, etc.
How to “communicate” with the lunar calendar
The lunar calendar is not constant, every month the first lunar day shifts, and therefore there are no and cannot be clear universal recommendations. In order to understand how you should behave on a given day, what is best to do, and what you should avoid, you must take into account the sign in which the Moon is located on this day, and which lunar days have arrived. And also whether the Moon enters or does not enter a new phase on this day. Only a comprehensive analysis gives a complete, adequate picture of the influence of the lunar calendar on our lives.
For example, the full moon falling on the 14th lunar day (called “Trumpet”) is less conflicting and stormy than when it falls on the 15th day (“Snake”). However, if during the full moon the Moon is in Scorpio, then even the 14th lunar day will not save you.
What is a lunar calendar?
The periods when the Moon enters a new phase are dangerous in themselves; it is not for nothing that they are called unfavorable days. At this time, everything that is delicate is torn, illnesses worsen, emotions get out of control. This can be smoothed out by the position of the Moon in a particular zodiac sign and the numbers of the lunar day. Or maybe it’s exaggerated.
Competent “communication” with the lunar calendar gives a person the opportunity not only to choose the right day for important actions or events. It also allows you to better know yourself, the characteristics of your body and character.
For example, extroverts and introverts are affected differently by the phases of the moon. And if the first ones are on the full moon splash out their emotions at others, they shout, become hysterical, then the latter withdraw into themselves even more, and sometimes this leads to serious mental disorders and even suicide. If you take this into account, you can avoid many troubles.
The same thing happens with health. If we take into account that chronic diseases also worsen depending on the phases of the moon, then you can “spread a straw” by taking medications in advance or simply having the necessary medications on hand.
By the way, women’s “critical days” also live not according to the solar, but according to the lunar calendar, which is why favorable days for conception calculated based on the position of the Moon. And the advice that astrologers give regarding actions on a given lunar day will help to first improve the health of the body, and then give birth to a full-fledged baby.
In fact, this, of course, is not all that can be said about the lunar calendar. However, we hope that you now have a basic understanding of the influence that the Moon and the lunar calendar have on us all. And you can build your life in such a way that you become even happier, more successful, healthier and richer. The main thing is not to be lazy and correlate your life with the movement of the beautiful and mysterious Moon.
Nadezhda POPOVA
> Lunar calendar
Belongs to the category of the most ancient calendars of mankind. Guided by the information of the lunar calendar, you can understand when it is better to make deals, when to undergo treatment or cut your hair, and when it is better not to do all this. Humanity largely depends on the moon, and we have the power to use all its power to our advantage.
Lunar calendar by year |
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Years: 1931, 1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003, 2015 |
Years: 1932, 1944, 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2016 |
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Years: 1933, 1945, 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005, 2017 |
Years: 1934, 1946, 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006, 2018 |
Years: 1935, 1947, 1959, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2007, 2019 |
Years: 1930, 1942, 1954, 1966, 1978, 1990, 2002, 2014Compilation lunar calendar is based on the use of information about the movements of a given celestial body. It is precisely the celestial body that is located in close proximity to our planet, or, more precisely, in its orbit. The movement of the Moon around our planet has a complex trajectory, which is not so easy to calculate. It is precisely such movements that underlie lunar rhythms, on the basis of which various lunar calendars are created.
It is known that it is the Moon that influences the earth's ebb and flow in the world's oceans. Man consists largely of liquid, therefore, the moon also has a significant influence on his existence. Do not forget that the Moon also has a tremendous influence on plants, constantly changing the direction of movement of liquids and plant juices. Psychologists have long proven the fact that the Moon has a significant impact on a person’s mental health; such an effect is based on very subtle processes.
Change of lunar phases
Like any celestial body of ours, the Moon casts its light on our planet, but not completely, but only some part. This indicates that we see the surface of the Moon, not only for the reason that it is illuminated by our luminary - the Sun. At the moment of one orbit of the Moon around our planet, the relative positions of the Earth, Moon and Sun change significantly. This is the reason why the moon is only partially sanctified and not completely. This phenomenon is considered to be the reason for the change of certain phases of the lunar calendar. 
The location of the Moon is such that its side facing the Earth is practically not illuminated by the sun, precisely for this reason, it is practically invisible to the naked human eye. Over time, the Moon begins to shift slightly to the side, due to which the Sun begins to illuminate its surface; at the moment we can observe our satellite from its side. Every day the “sickle” of the moon increases in size; such a Moon is also called a waxing Moon.
When the Moon will be located strictly between the Sun and the Earth, its surface will be completely illuminated, for this reason we will see our satellite completely, like a coin. As soon as the Moon begins to decline, it will already be referred to as the old Moon. It is worth noting that if a person finds himself on the Moon and looks at the Earth, then our planet will also go through the entire sequence of phase changes. Our satellite and our planet are constantly in opposite phases.
Our satellite shines very brightly in the sky, second only to the Sun. Naturally, our ancient ancestors began to pay attention to it, namely to its movement. It is believed that the first lunar calendar was developed in Mesopotamia, back in the 3rd century BC, by the famous Sumerians. The change of lunar phases is clearly visible in our sky, so scientists from different countries compared these with the rhythm of their own life activity. But at the moment when the life of our ancestors moved from a nomadic image to a sedentary one, the lunar calendar lost its relevance, since it did not meet the innovative requirements of the inhabitants of that distant time.
Since ancient people began to carry out agricultural work, the lunar calendar became not so popular, since the harvest depended on the Sun, and not on the Moon. Therefore, the solar calendar has become in great demand. On the territory of Rus' there was also a solar-lunar calendar. The Muslim calendar is considered the strangest lunar calendar, since it is designed based on changes exclusively in the lunar phases. But the lunar calendar today is in enormous demand, since the life of not only humans, but also nature, significantly depends on our satellite.
Lunar cycles
Duration of one lunar cycle is equal to 29.5 days, and this cycle lasts from the beginning of the first new moon to the beginning of the next. During this entire period, our satellite goes through 4 phases, the so-called quarters. The beginning of the lunar day is considered to be the rising of the Moon, which lasts until its subsequent rising. Moonrise does not have to happen at night; it can happen during the day.
The content of the article
CALENDAR(from Latin calendae or kalendae, “calends” - the name of the first day of the month among the ancient Romans), a way of dividing the year into convenient periodic intervals of time. The main tasks of the calendar are: a) fixing dates and b) measuring time intervals. For example, task (a) involves recording the dates of natural phenomena, both periodic - equinoxes, eclipses, tides - and non-periodic, such as earthquakes. The calendar allows you to record historical and social events in their chronological sequence. One of the important tasks of the calendar is to determine the moments of church events and “drifting” holidays (for example, Easter). Function (b) of the calendar is used in the public sphere and in everyday life, where interest payments, wages and other business relationships are based on specific time intervals. Many statistical and scientific studies also use time intervals.
There are three main types of calendars: 1) lunar, 2) solar and 3) lunisolar.
Moon calendar
based on the length of the synodic, or lunar month (29.53059 days), determined by the period of change of lunar phases; the length of the solar year is not taken into account. An example of a lunar calendar is the Muslim calendar. Most peoples who use the lunar calendar consider the months to alternately consist of 29 or 30 days, so the average length of a month is 29.5 days. The length of the lunar year in such a calendar is 12·29.5 = 354 days. The true lunar year, consisting of 12 synodic months, contains 354.3671 days. The calendar does not take this fractional part into account; Thus, over 30 years, a discrepancy of 11.012 days accumulates. Adding these 11 days every 30 years restores the calendar to the lunar phases. The main disadvantage of the lunar calendar is that its year is 11 days shorter than the solar year; therefore, the beginning of certain seasons according to the lunar calendar occurs year after year on increasingly later dates, which causes certain difficulties in public life.
Solar calendar
coordinated with the length of the solar year; in it, the beginning and duration of calendar months are not related to the change of lunar phases. The ancient Egyptians and Mayans had solar calendars; Nowadays, most countries also use the solar calendar. A true solar year contains 365.2422 days; but the civil calendar, to be convenient, must contain an integer number of days, therefore in the solar calendar an ordinary year contains 365 days, and the fractional part of the day (0.2422) is taken into account every few years by adding one day to the so-called leap year. The solar calendar is usually based on four main dates - two equinoxes and two solstices. The accuracy of a calendar is determined by how accurately the equinox falls on the same day each year.
Lunar-solar calendar
is an attempt to reconcile the length of the lunar month and the solar (tropical) year through periodic adjustments. To ensure that the average number of days per year according to the lunar calendar corresponds to the solar year, a thirteenth lunar month is added every 2 or 3 years. This trick is required to ensure that the growing seasons fall on the same dates each year. An example of a lunisolar calendar is given by the Jewish calendar, officially adopted in Israel.
TIME MEASUREMENT
Calendars use units of time based on the periodic movements of astronomical objects. The rotation of the Earth around its axis determines the length of the day, the revolution of the Moon around the Earth gives the length of the lunar month, and the revolution of the Earth around the Sun determines the solar year.
Sunny days.
The apparent movement of the Sun across the sky sets the true solar day as the interval between two successive passages of the Sun through the meridian at the lower culmination. If this movement reflected only the rotation of the Earth around its axis, then it would occur very uniformly. But it is also associated with the uneven movement of the Earth around the Sun and with the tilt of the Earth’s axis; therefore, the true solar day is variable. To measure time in everyday life and in science, the mathematically calculated position of the “average sun” and, accordingly, the average solar day, which have a constant duration, are used. In most countries, the beginning of the day is at 0 o'clock, i.e. at midnight. But this was not always the case: in biblical times, in Ancient Greece and Judea, as well as in some other eras, the beginning of the day was in the evening. For the Romans, in different periods of their history, the day began at different times of the day.
Moon month.
Initially, the length of the month was determined by the period of revolution of the Moon around the Earth, more precisely, by the synodic lunar period, equal to the time interval between two successive occurrences of identical phases of the Moon, for example, new moons or full moons. The average synodic lunar month (the so-called “lunar month”) lasts 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 2.8 seconds. In biblical times, lunation was considered equal to 30 days, but the Romans, Greeks and some other peoples accepted the value measured by astronomers as 29.5 days as a standard. The lunar month is a convenient unit of time in social life, since it is longer than a day, but shorter than a year. In ancient times, the Moon attracted universal interest as an instrument for measuring time, since it is very easy to observe the expressive change of its phases. In addition, the lunar month was associated with various religious needs and therefore played an important role in the preparation of the calendar.
Year.
In everyday life, including when compiling a calendar, the word “year” means the tropical year (“year of the seasons”), equal to the time interval between two successive passages of the Sun through the vernal equinox. Now its duration is 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 45.6 seconds, and every 100 years it decreases by 0.5 seconds. Even ancient civilizations used this seasonal year; According to the records of the Egyptians, Chinese and other ancient peoples, it is clear that the length of the year was initially taken to be 360 days. But quite a long time ago the length of the tropical year was specified to 365 days. Later, the Egyptians accepted its duration as 365.25 days, and the great ancient astronomer Hipparchus reduced this quarter of a day by several minutes. The civil year did not always begin on January 1. Many ancient peoples (as well as some modern ones) began the year from the moment of the spring equinox, and in Ancient Egypt the year began on the day of the autumn equinox.
HISTORY OF CALENDARS
Greek calendar.
In the ancient Greek calendar, a normal year consisted of 354 days. But since it lacked 11.25 days to coordinate with the solar year, then every 8 years 90 days (11.25ґ8), divided into three equal months, were added to the year; this 8-year cycle was called an octaesteride. After about 432 BC. the Greek calendar was based on the Metonic cycle and then the Callippus cycle (see section on cycles and eras below).
Roman calendar.
According to ancient historians, at the beginning (c. 8th century BC) the Latin calendar consisted of 10 months and contained 304 days: five months of 31 days each, four months of 30 and one month of 29 days. The year began on March 1; from here the names of some months have been preserved - September (“seventh”), October (“eighth”), November (“ninth”) and December (“tenth”). The new day began at midnight. Subsequently, the Roman calendar underwent considerable changes. Before 700 BC Emperor Numa Pompilius added two months - January and February. Numa's calendar contained 7 months of 29 days, 4 months of 31 days and February with 28 days, which amounted to 355 days. Around 451 BC a group of 10 senior Roman officials (decemvirs) brought the sequence of months to its current form, moving the beginning of the year from March 1 to January 1. Later, a college of pontiffs was established, which carried out a reform of the calendar.
Julian calendar.
By 46 BC, when Julius Caesar became Pontifex Maximus, calendar dates were clearly at odds with natural seasonal phenomena. There were so many complaints that radical reform became necessary. To restore the previous connection of the calendar with the seasons, Caesar, on the advice of the Alexandrian astronomer Sosigenes, extended the 46th year BC, adding a month of 23 days after February and two months of 34 and 33 days between November and December. Thus, that year had 445 days and was called the “year of confusion.” Then Caesar fixed the duration of the ordinary year at 365 days with the introduction of one additional day every four years after February 24. This made it possible to bring the average length of the year (365.25 days) closer to the length of the tropical year. Caesar deliberately abandoned the lunar year and chose the solar year, since this made all insertions, except for the leap year, unnecessary. Thus Caesar established the length of the year exactly equal to 365 days and 6 hours; Since then, this meaning has been widely used: after three ordinary years there follows one leap year. Caesar changed the length of the months (Table 1), making February 29 days in a normal year and 30 days in a leap year. This Julian calendar, now often called the “old style,” was introduced on January 1, 45 BC. At the same time, the month of Quintilis was renamed July in honor of Julius Caesar, and the vernal equinox was shifted to its original date of March 25.
Augustian calendar.
After the death of Caesar, the pontiffs, apparently misunderstanding the instructions about leap years, added a leap year not every four years, but every three years, for 36 years. Emperor Augustus corrected this error by skipping three leap years in the period from 8 BC. to 8 AD From this point on, only years with a number divisible by 4 were considered leap years. In honor of the emperor, the month of Sextilis was renamed August. In addition, the number of days in this month was increased from 30 to 31. These days were taken from February. September and November were reduced from 31 to 30 days, and October and December were increased from 30 to 31 days, which maintained the total number of days in the calendar (Table 1). Thus, the modern system of months developed. Some authors consider Julius Caesar, not Augustus, to be the founder of the modern calendar.
| Table 1. DURATION OF MONTHS THREE ROMAN CALENDARS (in days) |
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| Name of the month | Calendar of the Decemvirs (c. 414 BC) |
Calendar Julia (45 BC) |
August calendar (8 BC) |
| Januarius | 29 | 31 | 31 |
| Februarius | 28 | 29–30 | 28–29 |
| Martius | 31 | 31 | 31 |
| Aprilis | 29 | 30 | 30 |
| Mayus | 31 | 31 | 31 |
| Junius | 29 | 30 | 30 |
| Quintilis 1) | 31 | 31 | 31 |
| Sextilis 2) | 29 | 30 | 31 |
| September | 29 | 31 | 30 |
| October | 31 | 30 | 31 |
| November | 29 | 31 | 30 |
| December | 29 | 30 | 31 |
| 1) Julius in the Julius and Augustan calendars. 2) August in the Augustan calendar. |
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Kalends, Ides and Nones.
The Romans used these words only in the plural, calling special days of the month. Kalends, as mentioned above, were called the first day of each month. The Ides were the 15th day of March, May, July (quintilis), October and the 13th day of the remaining (short) months. In modern calculations, the nones are the 8th day before the Ides. But the Romans took into account the Ides themselves, so they had nones on the 9th day (hence their name “nonus”, nine). The Ides of March was March 15 or, less specifically, any of the seven days preceding it: from March 8 to March 15 inclusive. The nones of March, May, July and October fell on the 7th day of the month, and in other short months - on the 5th day. The days of the month were counted backwards: in the first half of the month they said that so many days remained until the nons or ids, and in the second half - until the calendars of the next month.
Gregorian calendar.
The Julian year, with a duration of 365 days 6 hours, is 11 minutes 14 seconds longer than the true solar year, therefore, over time, the onset of seasonal phenomena according to the Julian calendar occurred on earlier and earlier dates. Particularly strong discontent was caused by the constant shift in the date of Easter, associated with the spring equinox. In 325 AD The Council of Nicaea issued a decree on a single date for Easter for the entire Christian church. In subsequent centuries, many proposals were made to improve the calendar. Finally, the proposals of the Neapolitan astronomer and physician Aloysius Lilius (Luigi Lilio Giraldi) and the Bavarian Jesuit Christopher Clavius were approved by Pope Gregory XIII. On February 24, 1582, he issued a bull introducing two important additions to the Julian calendar: 10 days were removed from the 1582 calendar - after October 4, October 15 followed. This allowed March 21 to be retained as the date of the vernal equinox, which it probably was in 325 AD. In addition, three out of every four century years were to be considered ordinary years and only those divisible by 400 were to be considered leap years. Thus, 1582 became the first year of the Gregorian calendar, often called the "new style". France switched to the new style the same year. Some other Catholic countries adopted it in 1583. Other countries adopted the new style over the years: for example, Great Britain adopted the Gregorian calendar from 1752; By leap year 1700, according to the Julian calendar, the difference between it and the Gregorian calendar was already 11 days, so in Great Britain, after September 2, 1752, September 14 came. In the same year in England, the beginning of the year was moved to January 1 (before that, the new year began on the day of the Annunciation - March 25). Retrospective correction of dates caused much confusion for many years, as Pope Gregory XIII ordered corrections of all past dates back to the Council of Nicaea. The Gregorian calendar is used today in many countries, including the United States and Russia, which abandoned the Eastern (Julian) calendar only after the October (actually November) Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. The Gregorian calendar is not absolutely accurate: it is 26 seconds longer than the tropical year. The difference reaches one day in 3323 years. To compensate for them, instead of eliminating three leap years out of every 400 years, it would be necessary to eliminate one leap year out of every 128 years; this would correct the calendar so much that in only 100,000 years the difference between the calendar and tropical years would reach 1 day.
Jewish calendar.
This typical lunisolar calendar has very ancient origins. Its months contain alternately 29 and 30 days, and every 3 years the 13th month Veadar is added; it is inserted before the month of Nissan every 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th and 19th year of the 19-year cycle. Nissan is the first month of the Jewish calendar, although years are counted from the seventh month of Tishri. The insertion of Veadar causes the vernal equinox to always fall on a lunation in the month of Nissan. In the Gregorian calendar there are two types of years - ordinary and leap years, and in the Jewish calendar - an ordinary (12-month) year and an embolismic (13-month) year. In the embolismic year, of the 30 days inserted before Nissan, 1 day belongs to the sixth month of Adar (which usually contains 29 days), and 29 days make up Veadar. In fact, the Jewish lunisolar calendar is even more complex than described here. Although it is suitable for calculating time, but due to the use of the lunar month it cannot be considered an effective modern instrument of this kind.
Muslim calendar.
Before Muhammad, who died in 632, the Arabs had a lunisolar calendar with intercalary months, similar to the Jewish one. It is believed that the errors of the old calendar forced Muhammad to abandon additional months and introduce a lunar calendar, the first year of which was 622. In it, the day and the synodic lunar month are taken as the unit of reference, and the seasons are not taken into account at all. A lunar month is considered equal to 29.5 days, and a year consists of 12 months containing alternately 29 or 30 days. In a 30-year cycle, the last month of the year contains 29 days for 19 years, and the remaining 11 years contain 30 days. The average length of the year in this calendar is 354.37 days. The Muslim calendar is widely used in the Near and Middle East, although Turkey abandoned it in 1925 in favor of the Gregorian calendar.
Egyptian calendar.
The early Egyptian calendar was lunar, as evidenced by the hieroglyph for “month” in the form of a lunar crescent. Later, the life of the Egyptians turned out to be closely connected with the annual floods of the Nile, which became the starting point for them, stimulating the creation of a solar calendar. According to J. Breasted, this calendar was introduced in 4236 BC, and this date is considered the oldest historical date. The solar year in Egypt contained 12 months of 30 days, and at the end of the last month there were five more additional days (epagomen), giving a total of 365 days. Since the calendar year was 1/4 day shorter than the solar year, over time it became more and more at odds with the seasons. Observing the heliacal risings of Sirius (the first appearance of the star in the rays of dawn after its invisibility during the period of conjunction with the Sun), the Egyptians determined that 1461 Egyptian years of 365 days are equal to 1460 solar years of 365.25 days. This interval is known as the Sothis period. For a long time, the priests prevented any change in the calendar. Finally in 238 BC. Ptolemy III issued a decree adding one day to every fourth year, i.e. introduced something like a leap year. This is how the modern solar calendar was born. The Egyptians' day began with sunrise, their week consisted of 10 days, and their month consisted of three weeks.
Chinese calendar.
The prehistoric Chinese calendar was lunar. Around 2357 BC Emperor Yao, dissatisfied with the existing lunar calendar, ordered his astronomers to determine the dates of the equinoxes and, using intercalary months, create a seasonal calendar convenient for agriculture. To harmonize the 354-day lunar calendar with the 365-day astronomical year, 7 intercalary months were added every 19 years, following detailed instructions. Although solar and lunar years were generally consistent, lunisolar differences remained; they were corrected when they reached a noticeable size. However, the calendar was still imperfect: the years were of unequal length, and the equinoxes fell on different dates. In the Chinese calendar, the year consisted of 24 crescents. The Chinese calendar has a 60-year cycle, which begins in 2637 BC. (according to other sources - 2397 BC) with several internal periods, and each year has a rather funny name, for example, “year of the cow” in 1997, “year of the tiger” in 1998, “hare” in 1999, “dragon” in 2000, etc., which are repeated with a period of 12 years. After Western penetration into China in the 19th century. The Gregorian calendar began to be used in commerce, and in 1911 it was officially adopted in the new Republic of China. However, peasants still continued to use the ancient lunar calendar, but since 1930 it was banned.
Mayan and Aztec calendars.
The ancient Mayan civilization had a very high art of counting time. Their calendar contained 365 days and consisted of 18 months of 20 days (each month and each day had its own name) plus 5 additional days that did not belong to any month. The calendar consisted of 28 weeks of 13 numbered days each, amounting to a total of 364 days; one day remained extra. Almost the same calendar was used by the neighbors of the Mayans, the Aztecs. The Aztec calendar stone is of great interest. The face in the center represents the Sun. The four large rectangles adjacent to it depict heads symbolizing the dates of the four previous world eras. The heads and symbols in the rectangles of the next circle symbolize the 20 days of the month. Large triangular figures represent the rays of the sun, and at the base of the outer circle two fiery serpents represent the heat of the heavens. The Aztec calendar is similar to the Mayan calendar, but the names of the months are different.
CYCLES AND ERAS
Sunday letters
– is a diagram showing the relationship between the day of the month and the day of the week during any year. For example, it allows you to determine Sundays, and based on this, create a calendar for the whole year. The table of weekly letters can be written like this:
Each day of the year, except February 29 in leap years, is indicated by a letter. A specific day of the week is always indicated by the same letter throughout the year, with the exception of leap years; therefore, the letter that represents the first Sunday corresponds to all other Sundays of this year. Knowing the Sunday letters of any year (from A to G) you can completely restore the order of the days of the week for that year. The following table is useful:
To determine the order of the days of the week and create a calendar for any year, you need to have a table of Sunday letters for each year (Table 2) and a table of the structure of the calendar of any year with known Sunday letters (Table 3). For example, let's find the day of the week for August 10, 1908. In the table. 2, at the intersection of the centuries column with the line containing the last two digits of the year, Sunday letters are indicated. Leap years have two letters, and for full centuries such as 1900, the letters are listed in the top row. For Leap Year 1908, the Sunday letters will be ED. From the leap year part of the table. 3, using the letters ED we find the string of days of the week, and the intersection of the date “August 10” with it gives Monday. In the same way, we find that March 30, 1945 was a Friday, April 1, 1953 was a Wednesday, November 27, 1983 was a Sunday, etc.
| Table 2. SUNDAY LETTERS FOR ANY YEAR FROM 1700 TO 2800 (according to A. Philip) |
|||||||
| Last two digits of the year | Centennial years | ||||||
| 1700 2100 2500 |
1800 2200 2600 |
1900 2300 2700 |
2000 2400 2800 |
||||
| 00 | C | E | G | B.A. | |||
| 01 02 03 04 |
29 30 31 32 |
57 58 59 60 |
85 86 87 88 |
B A G F.E. |
D C B A.G. |
F E D C.B. |
G F E DC |
| 05 06 07 08 |
33 34 35 36 |
61 62 63 64 |
89 90 91 92 |
D C B A.G. |
F E D C.B. |
A G F ED |
B A G F.E. |
| 09 10 11 12 |
37 38 39 40 |
65 66 67 68 |
93 94 95 96 |
F E D C.B. |
A G F ED |
C B A GF |
D C B A.G. |
| 13 14 15 16 |
41 42 43 44 |
69 70 71 72 |
97 98 99 . . |
A G F ED |
C B A GF |
E D C B.A. |
F E D C.B. |
| 17 18 19 20 |
45 46 47 48 |
73 74 75 76 |
. . . . . . . . |
C B A GF |
E D C B.A. |
G F E DC |
A G F ED |
| 21 22 23 24 |
49 50 51 52 |
77 78 79 80 |
. . . . . . . . |
E D C B.A. |
G F E DC |
B A G F.E. |
C B A GF |
| 25 26 27 28 |
53 54 55 56 |
81 82 83 84 |
. . . . . . . . |
G F E DC |
B A G F.E. |
D C B A.G. |
E D C B.A. |
| Table 3. CALENDAR FOR ANY YEAR (according to A. Philip) | |||||||||||||||||
| Normal year | |||||||||||||||||
| Sunday letters and starting days of the week | A G F E D C B |
Sun Mon W Wed Thu Mon Sat |
Mon W Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun |
W Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon |
Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon W |
Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon W Wed |
Fri Sat Sun Mon W Wed Thu |
Sat Sun Mon W Wed Thu Fri |
|||||||||
| Month | Days in a month | ||||||||||||||||
| January October |
31 31 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 31 |
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
|||||||||
| February March November |
28 31 30 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 31 |
4 11 18 25 |
|||||||||
|
April |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 31 |
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
||||||||||
|
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 31 |
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
|||||||||||
|
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 |
|||||||||||
|
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 31 |
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
|||||||||||
|
September |
3 10 17 24 31 |
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
||||||||||
| Leap year | |||||||||||||||||
| Sunday letters and starting days of the week | A.G. GF F.E. ED DC C.B. B.A. |
Sun Mon W Wed Thu Mon Sat |
Mon W Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun |
W Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon |
Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon W |
Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon W Wed |
Fri Sat Sun Mon W Wed Thu |
Sat Sun Mon W Wed Thu Fri |
|||||||||
| Month | Days in a month | ||||||||||||||||
| January April July |
31 30 31 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 31 |
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
|||||||||
|
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 31 |
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
|||||||||||
| February August |
29 31 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 31 |
4 11 18 25 |
|||||||||
| March November |
31 30 |
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 31 |
|||||||||
|
3 10 17 24 |
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
|||||||||||
|
September |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 31 |
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
||||||||||
|
7 14 21 28 |
1 8 15 22 29 |
2 9 16 23 30 |
3 10 17 24 31 |
4 11 18 25 |
5 12 19 26 |
6 13 20 27 |
|||||||||||
Metonic cycle
shows the relationship between the lunar month and the solar year; therefore, it became the basis for the Greek, Hebrew and some other calendars. This cycle consists of 19 years of 12 months plus 7 additional months. It is named after the Greek astronomer Meton, who discovered it in 432 BC, unaware that China had known about it since 2260 BC. Meton determined that a period of 19 solar years contains 235 synodic months (lunars). He considered the length of the year to be 365.25 days, so 19 years were 6939 days 18 hours, and 235 lunations were equal to 6939 days 16 hours 31 minutes. He inserted 7 additional months into this cycle, since 19 years of 12 months add up to 228 months. It is believed that Meton inserted extra months in the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th and 19th years of the cycle. All years, in addition to those indicated, contain 12 months, consisting alternately of 29 or 30 days, 6 years among the seven mentioned above contain an additional month of 30 days, and the seventh - 29 days. Probably the first Metonic cycle began in July 432 BC. The phases of the Moon are repeated on the same days of the cycle with an accuracy of several hours. Thus, if the dates of new moons are determined during one cycle, then they are easily determined for subsequent cycles. The position of each year in the Metonic cycle is indicated by its number, which takes values from 1 to 19 and is called golden number(since in ancient times the phases of the moon were inscribed in gold on public monuments). The golden number of the year can be determined using special tables; it is used to calculate the date of Easter.
Callippus cycle.
Another Greek astronomer - Callippus - in 330 BC. developed Meton's idea by introducing a 76-year cycle (= 19ґ4). The Callippus cycles contain a constant number of leap years, while the Metonian cycle has a variable number.
Solar cycle.
This cycle consists of 28 years and helps to establish the connection between the day of the week and the ordinal day of the month. If there were no leap years, then the correspondence between the days of the week and the numbers of the month would regularly repeat with a 7-year cycle, since there are 7 days in a week, and the year can begin with any of them; and also because a normal year is 1 day longer than 52 full weeks. But the introduction of leap years every 4 years makes the cycle of repeating all possible calendars in the same order 28 years. The interval between years with the same calendar varies from 6 to 28 years.
Cycle of Dionysius (Easter). This 532-year cycle has components of a lunar 19-year cycle and a solar 28-year cycle. It is believed that it was introduced by Dionysius the Lesser in 532. According to his calculations, just in that year the lunar cycle began, the first in the new Easter cycle, which indicated the date of Christ’s birth in 1 AD. (this date is often the subject of dispute; some authors give the date of Christ's birth as 4 BC). The Dionysian cycle contains the complete sequence of Easter dates.
Epact.
Epact is the age of the Moon from new moon in days on January 1 of any year. Epact was proposed by A. Lilius and introduced by C. Clavius during the preparation of new tables for determining the days of Easter and other holidays. Every year has its own impact. In general, to determine the date of Easter, a lunar calendar is required, but epact allows you to determine the date of the new moon and then calculate the date of the first full moon after the spring equinox. The Sunday following this date is Easter. Epact is more perfect than the golden number: it allows you to determine the dates of new moons and full moons by the age of the Moon on January 1, without calculating the lunar phases for the whole year. The complete table of epacts is calculated for 7000 years, after which the entire series is repeated. Epacts cycle through a series of 19 numbers. To determine the epact of the current year, you need to add 11 to the epact of the previous year. If the sum exceeds 30, then you need to subtract 30. This is not a very accurate rule: the number 30 is approximate, so the dates of astronomical phenomena calculated by this rule may differ from the true ones by a day. Before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, epacts were not used. The epact cycle is believed to have begun in 1 BC. with epact 11. The instructions for calculating epacts seem very complicated until you look into the details.
Roman Indicts.
This is a cycle introduced by the last Roman Emperor Constantine; it was used to conduct commercial affairs and collect taxes. A continuous sequence of years was divided into 15-year intervals - indicts. The cycle began on January 1, 313. Therefore, 1 AD. was the fourth year of indictment. The rule for determining the year number in the current index is as follows: add 3 to the Gregorian year number and divide this number by 15, the remainder is the desired number. Thus, in the Roman indict system, the year 2000 is numbered 8.
Julian period.
It is a universal period used in astronomy and chronology; introduced by the French historian J. Scaliger in 1583. Scaliger named it “Julian” in honor of his father, the famous scientist Julius Caesar Scaliger. The Julian period contains 7980 years - the product of the solar cycle (28 years, after which the dates of the Julian calendar fall on the same days of the week), the Metonic cycle (19 years, after which all phases of the Moon fall on the same days of the year) and the cycle of the Roman indicts (15 years). Scaliger chose January 1, 4713 BC as the beginning of the Julian period. according to the Julian calendar extended into the past, since all three of the above cycles converge on this date (more precisely, 0.5 January, since the beginning of the Julian day is taken to mean Greenwich noon; therefore, by midnight, from which January 1 begins, 0.5 Julian day). The current Julian period will end at the end of 3267 AD. (January 23, 3268 Gregorian calendar). In order to determine the year number in the Julian period, you need to add the number 4713 to it; the amount will be the number you are looking for. For example, 1998 was numbered 6711 in the Julian period. Each day of this period has its own Julian number JD (Julian Day), equal to the number of days that have passed from the beginning of the period until noon of this day. So, on January 1, 1993, the number was JD 2,448,989, i.e. By Greenwich noon of this date, exactly that many full days have passed from the beginning of the period. The date January 1, 2000 has the number JD 2 451 545. The Julian number of each calendar date is given in astronomical yearbooks. The difference between the Julian numbers of two dates indicates the number of days that have passed between them, which is very important to know for astronomical calculations.
Roman era.
The years of this era were counted from the founding of Rome, which is considered to be 753 BC. The year number was preceded by the abbreviation A.U.C. (anno urbis conditae - the year the city was founded). For example, the year 2000 of the Gregorian calendar corresponds to the year 2753 of the Roman era.
Olympic era.
The Olympics are 4-year intervals between Greek sports competitions held in Olympia; they were used in the chronology of Ancient Greece. The Olympic Games were held on the days of the first full moon after the summer solstice, in the month of Hecatombaeion, which corresponds to modern July. Calculations show that the first Olympic Games were held on July 17, 776 BC. At that time, they used a lunar calendar with additional months of the Metonic cycle. In the 4th century. During the Christian era, Emperor Theodosius abolished the Olympic Games, and in 392 the Olympiads were replaced by the Roman Indictments. The term "Olympic Era" appears frequently in chronology.
Era of Nabonassar.
It was one of the first introduced and named after the Babylonian king Nabonassar. The era of Nabonassar is of particular interest to astronomers because it was used to indicate dates by Hipparchus and the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy in his Almagest. Apparently, detailed astronomical research began in Babylon during this era. The beginning of the era is considered to be February 26, 747 BC. (according to the Julian calendar), the first year of Nabonassar's reign. Ptolemy began counting the day from the average noon on the meridian of Alexandria, and his year was Egyptian, containing exactly 365 days. It is not known whether the era of Nabonassar was used in Babylon at the time of its formal beginning, but in later times it apparently was used. Keeping in mind the “Egyptian” length of the year, it is easy to calculate that the year 2000 according to the Gregorian calendar is the year 2749 of the era of Nabonassar.
Jewish era.
The beginning of the Jewish era is the mythical date of the creation of the world, 3761 BC. The Jewish civil year begins around the autumnal equinox. For example, September 11, 1999 on the Gregorian calendar was the first day of 5760 on the Hebrew calendar.
Muslim era,
or the Hijri era, begins on July 16, 622, i.e. from the date of Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina. For example, April 6, 2000 according to the Gregorian calendar begins the year 1421 of the Muslim calendar.
Christian era.
Began on January 1, 1 AD. It is believed that the Christian era was introduced by Dionysius the Lesser in 532; time flows in it in accordance with the Dionysian cycle described above. Dionysius took March 25 as the beginning of the 1st year of “our” (or “new”) era, so the day is December 25, 1 AD. (i.e. 9 months later) was named the birthday of Christ. Pope Gregory XIII moved the start of the year to January 1. But historians and chronologists have long considered the day of the Nativity of Christ to be December 25, 1 BC. There was a lot of controversy about this important date, and only modern research has shown that Christmas most likely falls on December 25, 4 BC. Confusion in establishing such dates is caused by the fact that astronomers often call the year of Christ’s birth year zero (0 AD), which was preceded by 1 BC. But other astronomers, as well as historians and chronologists, believe that there was no zero year and just after 1 BC. follows 1 AD There is also no agreement on whether to consider years such as 1800 and 1900 the end of the century or the beginning of the next. If we accept the existence of a zero year, then 1900 will be the beginning of the century, and 2000 will also be the beginning of the new millennium. But if there was no year zero, then the 20th century does not end until the end of 2000. Many astronomers consider century years ending in "00" to be the beginning of a new century.
As you know, the date of Easter is constantly changing: it can fall on any day from March 22 to April 25 inclusive. According to the rule, Easter (Catholic) should be on the first Sunday after the full moon following the spring equinox (March 21). In addition, according to the English Breviary, "... if the full moon occurs on a Sunday, then Easter will be the following Sunday." This date, which has great historical significance, has been the subject of much debate and discussion. Pope Gregory XIII's amendments have been accepted by many churches, but since the calculation of the date of Easter is based on the lunar phases, it cannot have a specific date in the solar calendar.
CALENDAR REFORM
Although the Gregorian calendar is very accurate and quite consistent with natural phenomena, its modern structure does not fully correspond to the needs of social life. There has been talk for a long time about improving the calendar and even various associations have emerged to carry out such a reform.
Disadvantages of the Gregorian calendar.
This calendar has about a dozen defects. Chief among them is the variability of the number of days and weeks in months, quarters and half-years. For example, quarters contain 90, 91, or 92 days. There are four main problems:
1) Theoretically, the civil (calendar) year should have the same length as the astronomical (tropical) year. However, this is impossible, since the tropical year does not contain an integer number of days. Because of the need to add an extra day to the year from time to time, there are two types of years - ordinary and leap years. Since the year can start from any day of the week, this gives 7 types of ordinary years and 7 types of leap years, i.e. a total of 14 types of years. To fully reproduce them you need to wait 28 years.
2) The length of months varies: they can contain from 28 to 31 days, and this unevenness leads to certain difficulties in economic calculations and statistics.
3) Neither ordinary nor leap years contain an integer number of weeks. Semi-years, quarters and months also do not contain a whole and equal number of weeks.
4) From week to week, from month to month and even from year to year, the correspondence of dates and days of the week changes, so it is difficult to establish the moments of various events. For example, Thanksgiving always falls on Thursday, but the day of the month varies. Christmas always falls on December 25th, but on different days of the week.
Suggested improvements.
There are many proposals for calendar reform, of which the following are the most discussed:
International fixed calendar
(International Fixed Calendar). This is an improved version of the 13-month calendar proposed in 1849 by the French philosopher, founder of positivism, O. Comte (1798–1857). It was developed by the English statistician M. Cotsworth (1859–1943), who founded the Fixed Calendar League in 1942. This calendar contains 13 months of 28 days each; All months are the same and start on Sunday. Leaving the first six of the twelve months to have their usual names, Cotsworth inserted the 7th month “Sol” between them. One extra day (365 – 13ґ28), called the Day of the Year, follows December 28th. If the year is a leap year, then another Leap Day is inserted after June 28th. These “balancing” days are not taken into account in counting the days of the week. Cotsworth proposed abolishing the names of the months and using Roman numerals to denote them. The 13-month calendar is very uniform and easy to use: the year is easily divided into months and weeks, and the month is divided into weeks. If economic statistics used a month instead of half-years and quarters, such a calendar would be a success; but 13 months are difficult to divide into half-years and quarters. The sharp difference between this calendar and the current one also causes problems. Its introduction will require great effort to obtain the consent of influential groups committed to tradition.
World calendar
(World Calendar). This 12-month calendar was developed by decision of the International Commercial Congress of 1914 and was vigorously promoted by many supporters. In 1930, E. Ahelis organized the World Calendar Association, which has been publishing the Journal of Calendar Reform since 1931. The basic unit of the World Calendar is the quarter of the year. Every week and year starts on Sunday. The first three months contain 31, 30 and 30 days, respectively. Each subsequent quarter is the same as the first. The names of the months are kept as they are. Leap Year Day (June W) is inserted after June 30, and Year End Day (Peace Day) is inserted after December 30. Opponents of the World Calendar consider its disadvantage to be that each month consists of a non-integer number of weeks and therefore begins with an arbitrary day of the week. Defenders of this calendar consider its advantage to be similar to the current calendar.
Perpetual calendar
(Perpetual Calendar). This 12-month calendar is offered by W. Edwards of Honolulu, Hawaii. Edwards' perpetual calendar is divided into four 3-month quarters. Every week and every quarter starts on Monday, which is very beneficial for business. The first two months of each quarter contain 30 days, and the last - 31. Between December 31 and January 1 there is a holiday - New Year's Day, and once every 4 years between June 31 and July 1, Leap Year Day appears. A nice feature of the Perpetual Calendar is that Friday never falls on the 13th. Several times, a bill was even introduced into the US House of Representatives to officially switch to this calendar.
Literature:
Bickerman E. Timeline of the ancient world. M., 1975
Butkevich A.V., Zelikson M.S. Perpetual calendars. M., 1984
Volodomonov N.V. Calendar: past, present, future. M., 1987
Klimishin I.A. Calendar and chronology. M., 1990
Kulikov S. Thread of Times: Small Encyclopedia of the Calendar. M., 1991
Yuri Ruban,
Ph.D. ist. Sciences, Ph.D. theology
Etymology of the term
Word " calendar" acquired different meanings in its history. The term itself goes back to the Latin calendae, calends is the name of the first day of each month in Ancient Rome. In turn, this noun comes from the archaic verb cal(e)o - “to proclaim,” “to convene,” because once in Rome the beginning of the month was proclaimed by learned priests. Then the word calendarium arose - this was the name of the debt book in which creditors recorded the interest paid on debts on the first day of each month. And still later, in the Middle Ages, the modern meaning appeared. Thus, a calendar (calendarium) is a specific system for counting long periods with their divisions into separate shorter periods (years, months, weeks, days).
A characteristic feature of the Christian calendar is that it combines the principles of two calendars - the Jewish lunisolar and Roman solar. The first corresponds to the holidays of the moving cycle; Moreover, even the names of the two most important Jewish holidays are preserved - Passover (in Greek transcription Easter) and Pentecost. The second calendar corresponds to the holidays of the fixed cycle; Moreover, the main one - the Nativity of Christ - the Church combined with the winter solstice (December 25) - the day of an important pagan solar holiday - the Birthday of the Invincible Sun, Dies Natalis Solis Invicti. The Roman solar calendar was reformed twice: first dramatically by Julius Caesar in 46 BC. e. (hence called Julian), and then, in order to make it more accurate, by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 (this is our Gregorian calendar).
The need for a calendar
The need to measure time arose among people a long time ago. It is simply impossible to live without a counting system, be it measuring space (metrology) or time (calendar and chronology). The higher the level of culture and science, the more perfect the counting or measurement systems become.
Nature - or the Lord God, as one prefers - provided people with three periodic (observable even with the naked eye of a primitive man) processes that allow them to keep track of time:
1) change of day and night,
2) changing phases of the moon and
3) change of seasons.
On their basis, such concepts as day, month and year were formed. It is absolutely clear that the number of days in both a calendar month and a calendar year can only be an integer. Meanwhile, their astronomical prototypes - the synodic month and the tropical year - contain fractional parts of the day.
The synodic month (from the Greek “convergence”; during new moons, the Moon seems to converge with the Sun) is the period of time between two new moons; it ranges from 29.25 to 29.83 days (the reason is the ellipticity of the lunar orbit). The average length of a synodic month is 29.53059 days (= 29 days, 12 hours 44 minutes 3.0 seconds).
A tropical year (from the Greek - turn) is a period of time after which the height of the Sun above the horizon at noon, having reached its greatest value, decreases again. In other words, this is the period of time during which the Earth makes one revolution around the Sun. T = 365.24220 days.
Thus, neither the synodic month nor the tropical year contains an integer number of average solar days; therefore, all these three quantities are incommensurable. This means that it is impossible to simply express one of these quantities through the other - that is, it is impossible to select some integer number of solar years that would contain an integer number of lunar months and an integer number of average solar days. This is precisely the whole complexity of the calendar system and all the confusion that for many millennia reigned in the issue of counting large periods of time.
It is not surprising that the creation and improvement of calendar systems was previously available only to the priests - intellectuals of antiquity, who determined the dates of holidays, which were both church and civil, and by which ordinary people checked the time. Suffice it to remember that the calendar according to which Europe lived for 1600 years (and the Russian Orthodox Church still lives) was introduced by the high pagan priest of Rome (Julius Caesar); The reform of this (Julian) calendar was carried out in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII (the supreme Christian “priest”), and the chronology by which all humanity now compares time (the era from the Nativity of Christ, or Anno Domini, abbreviated AD) was developed and introduced in 525 g. Roman archivist Abbot Dionysius the Small.
Three kinds of calendars
The desire to at least to some extent coordinate the day, month and year with each other led to the emergence of three calendar systems:
1) a solar calendar based on the movement of the Sun, in which they tried to coordinate the day and year;
2) a lunar calendar based on the movement of the Moon, the purpose of which is to coordinate the day and the lunar month; finally,
3) lunisolar, in which an attempt is made to coordinate all three units of time.
Lunisolar calendar systems are much more complex than lunar and solar calendars. Here it is necessary that the beginnings of the calendar months be located as close as possible to the new moon, and the sum of a certain number of whole lunar months correspond as closely as possible to the true length of the tropical year. Calendar months have twenty-nine or thirty days. The basis of almost all active lunisolar calendars is the so-called Metonic cycle, named after the ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician Meton, who established this nineteen-year cycle in 432 BC. e. It serves to best coordinate changes in lunar phases with the movement of the Sun. In this cycle there are 12 years of 12 lunar months and 7 years of 13 months. The intercalary months are called "embolismic" (from the Greek - insertion). A year with 13 months is a leap year; The ancient Jews called it ibbur - "pregnant". They are located like this: 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19.
The Jewish lunisolar calendar is the basis of the Christian Paschal (a system of rules and amendments for calculating the date of Easter for each year). Holidays and penitential days dependent on Easter (this is the Easter cycle) are recorded in our calendar, which is called movable (because its days move every year according to the dates of the month), or triode, because the liturgical texts of all these days are contained in a book with the Greek name Triodion .
Source: The Bible in Russian translation. RBO, Moscow, 1999
Help about calendars
1. Gregorian calendar(“new style”) introduced in 1582 AD. e. dad-sing Gri-go-ri-em XIII so that the day of the spring-of-the-equality of the co-responsibility-val is determined-de-len-no-mu day (March 21).
2. Julian calendar(“old style”) was introduced in 46 BC. e. Yuli-em Tse-za-rem and counted 365 days; appeared every third year. This mistake was corrected by im-per-ra-tor Augustus: from 8 BC. e. and until 8 AD e. The half-full days of the high years have passed.
3. Days of the week. Seven days of the week became a standard around the 3rd century AD. Named on the days of the week according to the heavenly bodies:
| № | Day | Roman Day | in honor of: |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Monday | dies Lunae | The Moon |
| 2 | Tuesday | dies Martis | Mars |
| 3 | Wednesday | dies Mercurii | Mercury |
| 4 | Thursday | dies Iovis | Jupiter |
| 5 | Friday | dies Veneris | Venus |
| 6 | Saturday | dies Saturni | Saturn |
| 7 | Sunday | dies Solis | The Sun |
Why was the new style introduced?
Gri-go-ri-an-sky ka-len-dar gives a much more accurate approximation to the real duration of the year Yes. Since those centuries, the astro-no-mi-days have gradually shifted, to which they are associated there were agricultural work and re-legal holidays: spring and autumn and etc.
The main thing for the intervention of the Pope of Rome and the adoption of the new ka-len-da-rya has become gradually -new shift in relation to the July-an-sky ka-len-da-ryu of the spring day, for some reason -ro-mu determined-de-la-da-ta Easter. Before Pope Gregory XIII, Popes Pavel III and Pius IV had already tried to clarify the cal-len-da-rya, but they were not successful -stig-lee. The reforms are under preparation according to the instructions of Gregory XIII of the implementation of the as-ro-no-we Christophorus Clavius and Alo-i -ziy Li-liy.
In 1583, Gregory XIII appointed Kon-stan-ti-no-pol-skomu pat-ri-ar-kh Jeremiah II as an embassy with the pre-lo- I'm not going to transfer to the new Ka-Len-Dar. At the end of 1583, at the council in Kon-stan-ti-no-po-le, the proposal was rejected, well, if not with- The ve-stvu-yu-shchee ka-but-no-che-pra-vi-lam celebration of Easter.
The transition to the Gri-go-ri-an-sky Ka-len-Dar brought the following from-me-not:
- the new calendar, immediately at the moment of arrival, shifted the current date by 10 days and corrected it for the beer-shi-e- all mistakes;
- in the new ka-len-da-re, a new, more precise, rule about the vi-so-kos-year began to operate - the year of vi- co-kosny, that is, lasts 366 days, if:
- number of year kra-ten 400 (1600, 2000, 2400);
- the rest of the years - the number of the year is equal to 4 and not equal to 100 (... 1892, 1896, 1904, 1908 ...);
- mo-di-fi-tsi-ro-va-lis pra-vi-la ras-che-ta chri-sti-an-skoy Easter.
- Over time, Yuli-an-sky and Gri-go-ri-an-sky Ka-len-da-ri are growing more and more, by three sous -current every 400 years.
The process of switching to the Gregorian calendar
In a number of cases, the move to the Gri-go-ri-an-sky Ka-len-Dar with-pro-led-give-seriously-seriously -ka-mi. For example, when the Polish king Stefan Ba-to-riy introduced a new calendar in Riga in 1584, local merchants supported nya-li-tezh, stating that a shift of 10 days disrupts their deadlines and leads to significant losses. I also destroyed the Riga church and killed several mu-zi-pal servants. It was only possible to cope with the “ka-len-dar-ny demons in a row” only in the summer of 1589.
In some countries that switched to the Gri-go-ri-an-sky ka-len-dar, subsequently the re-launch of Julian -skoe summer-counting as a result of their joining with other state-states.
In the transfer of the decision of the king of Ge-or-ga II to the Gri-go-ri-an-sky ka-len-dar on September 2, 1752 Bri-ta-nii had to move it forward not by 10, but by 11 days, since from the moment of entry into power the new I've been in the kon-ti-n-tal-noy Euro-pe mi-no-val for a whole century already and I've got one extra day to drink. After the 2nd, immediately on September 14th. The subjects were dissatisfied with the decision that made them senior. In the country there were pro-tests under the slogan: “Give us back one in ten days!” From time to time, you flare up, sometimes when you see people, for example, in Bristo-le .
In Sweden, it was decided to switch to the new ka-len-dar according to the ste-pen-no, abolishing the vi-so-kos-days from 1700 to 1740 years In 1700, the first Vi-so-kos-day was abolished. Then the war started and we forgot about the re-water. In this way, the country lived according to its own Swedish culture. In 1711, Charles XII recognized this as impractical and decided to return to the old style and add 2 days to February. That's why it was February 30, 1712 in Sweden. Only in 1753 was a new style introduced. Moreover, after February 17, immediately after March 1. The introduction of a new ka-len-da-rya also had serious financial consequences. In 1753 - the first full year according to the Gri-go-ri-an-sko-mu ka-len-da-ryu, the banks refused to pay on-lo-gi, waiting until 11 days after the end of collection - March 25th. As a result of the financial year in Vel-li-ko-bri-ta-nia, only 6 ap-re-la began. This data has been preserved to this day, as a symbol of great changes that took place 250 years ago.
Some countries have switched to the new style often, for example, various can- tones of Switzerland. no re-form-mu ka-len-da-rya for almost 120 years!
Unusual was the transition to the Gri-go-ri-an-sky ka-len-dar in Alaska after its sale to Russia, since there he co-che -tal-sya with per-re-no-som li-nii per-re-me-ny yes-you. That's why, after Friday, October 5, 1867, according to the old style, after another one, on Friday, October 18, 1867 -Teptember 1867 according to the new style.
In 1872, a decision was made about re-ho-de with tra-di-tsi-on-no-go (moon-no-sol-nech-no-go) ka-len-da-rya in Gri-go-ri-an-skiy pri-nya-la Japan, so the next day after the “second day of two-month the fifth year Maid-Zi" became on January 1, 1873, in the result of which the Ka-len-Dar of Japan was at -in compliance with the cal-len-da-rem of the main Western powers (excluding Russia). Nevertheless, in official do-ku-men-tas one-now-men-but-continues-to-use the si-ste-ma nen th. For example, the year 1868 could be considered the first year of Mei-ji, 1912 - Tai-sho 1, 1926 - Sho-wa 1, 1989 - Hei-s-ei 1, and etc. In ordinary practice, one-on-one, the number of years from the Birth of Christ to the “west” is taken. -no-mu ka-len-da-ryu” (seireki), which became the main one in Japan during the 20th century.
Ko-rea pri-nya-la gri-go-ri-an-sky ka-len-dar January 1, 1896. Although in agreement, when the ka-len-da-ryu was established, the correct nu-me-ra-tion of months and days, but still in for the years 1895-1897, the old number of years lasted according to the first year of the reign of the di-na-sty Cho-son, according to which 1896 gri-go-ri-an-sko-go ka-len-da-rya with-from-veterity-val 1392 to the year Cho-son. Then, I started counting the years from various historical events, until, since 1962, I haven’t gotten tired of counting down the years, identical gri-go-ri-an-sko-mu ka-len-da-ryu. In North Korea, since July 8, 1997, a new “year-old Juche” has been introduced, the beginning of which -la-et-xia 1912 is the year of birth of Kim Il Sung.
Ki-Thai Res-pub-li-ka ofi-tsi-al-but pri-nya-la gri-go-ri-an-skiy ka-len-dar with its pro-voz-gla-she- Institute since January 1, 1912. With the unification of China under the rule of Guo-ming-da-na in October 1928, the National Government of It became clear that from January 1, 1929, the Gri-go-ri-an-sky ka-len-dar will be used. Nevertheless, China co-kept the Chinese tradition for many months, and at the beginning The first year of the pro-establishment of the Chinese Republic was designated - 1912. This system is still in use in Taiwan, which considers itself a successor to the Chinese Republic. ki. After the pro-government of the Chinese People's Republic in 1949, the con-ti-nen-tal China pro-dol -lived to use the Gri-go-ri-an-sky Ka-len-Dar, but was from-me-not-at-nu-me-ra-tion and le-to-count-le -introduced by the previous government, and the establishment in correspondence with the anniversary of the birth of -Christianity, adopted in the USSR and in the West.
In Russia(on ter-ri-to-rii, na-ho-div-shay-sia under the control of So-ve-tov) Gri-go-ri-an-sky ka-len-dar introduced de- cre-tom of January 26, 1918 Sov-nar-ko-ma, according to someone in 1918 after January 31- follows February 14th. On the territories of the former Russian Empire, which were under the control of other state -ra-zo-va-niy, arose after the pa-de-niy of the Time-government, yes-you are an official of the introduction -de-niya but-in-go style from-whether-cha-yut-sya. Thus, the Temporary Siberian Government introduced a new style de-cre-tom on August 31, 1918, according to Sta-no-Viv consider the day of October 1, 1918 as the day of October 14, 1918.
One of the last to cross the Gri-go-ri-an-sky Ka-len-Dar was Greece in 1924, Turkey in 1926 and Egypt -pet in 1928. Until now, only Efi-o-piya and Ta-i-land have not moved to the Gri-go-ri-an-sky Ka-len-Dar.
Changing calendars in the Church
Since 1923, the majority of the Local Right-Glorious Churches, with the exception of the Russian, Jerusalem, and Georgian Zin-skaya and Serbian, similar to the Gri-go-ri-an-sky “no-vo-yuli-an-sky” ka-len-dar, more precisely ny and owl-pa-da-yu-schiy with gri-go-ri-an-sky until 2800.
Also, the Gri-go-ri-an-sky ka-len-dar was introduced by pat-ri-ar-hom Ti-kho-n for recognition in the Russian Orthodoxy Church on October 15, 1923. However, this is a new introduction, although almost everyone was there, you called There was confusion among many church hierarchs, which was unnecessary in this difficult time, so it was already November 8, 1923. -ri-arch Ti-hon ordered the “all-local and obligatory introduction of a new style into the church” the new required time to live.” In this way, the new style was in effect in the Russian Orthodox Church for only 24 days.
In 1948, at the Moscow meeting of the Right-Glorious Church, it was announced that Easter, just like everyone else -re-ho-day-holidays-should-be-calculated according to the Alec-San-Driy Pass-kha-lia (Yuli-an-sko-mu ka-len -da-ryu), and the non-per-re-ho-dya-things - according to the ka-len-da-ryu, according to which the Local Church lives.
How to recalculate past dates?
If the whole world hadn't bothered to talk about how and what kind of ka-len-dar to use for yes- ti-rov-ki is-to-ri-che-events, this would lead to different-but-fight and su-my-ti-tse in determining dates .
What errors would there be in re-counting dates?
- In connection with the recent transition of countries to the Gri-go-ri-an-sky ka-len-dar, facts can be introduced errors in perception: for example, sometimes it is said that In-ka Gar-si-la-so de la Vega, Mi-gel de Ser Van Tes and William Shakespir died on the same day - April 23, 1616. In fact, Shex-pir died 10 days later than In-ka Gar-si-la-so, since in some Is-pa-nia there is a new style acted from the very introduction of his father, and Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nia moved to the new calendar only to in 1752 and 11 days later than Ser-van-tes (who died on April 22, but was killed on April 23).
- There are other types of mistakes, when, for the sake of getting it, yes, you are -an-sko-mu ka-len-da-ryu for something to-add-la-yut the number of days that make up the difference between ka-len-da -rya-mi at the moment re-ho-da countries to a new style of ka-len-da-rya, that is, they spread out different numbers days of ka-len-da-rey deep into the centuries. Such a mistake about-de-mon-stri-ro-va-la our State Duma, the national holiday is on November 4th - de-pu-ta-you to the taking of Ki-tai-Go-ro-da on October 22, 1612 for 13 days, although not once -tsa between ka-len-da-rya-mi then with-sta-la-la only 10 days. This is no longer talking about the fact that the Kremlin itself, or rather the Kremlin gar-ni-zon of the Polish troops, surrendered much later to this day.
In addition to this, the State Duma also be-s-dum-but on-know-la some memorable military yes-you:
. Ice-before-howling happened on April 5, 1242, a memorable date on April 28 (one time again 13 days);
. Victory Day of the Russian regiments led by the Great Prince Dmit-ri Donsky over the Mon-go-lo-ta-tar-ski troops -mi in the Battle of Ku-li-Kov; happened on September 8, 1380, yes-to-know-on on September 21 (13 days);
Moreover, these errors are selective, most of the dates are correct, which is especially true for negligence. -re-counted the previously mentioned dates:
. Victory day of the Russian army under the command of Peter I over the Swedes in the Battle of Poltava; happened on June 27, 1709, yes, it was right on July 8 (11 days);
. Day of Bo-ro-din-sko-th battle of the Russian army under the co-man-do-va-ni-em M.I. Ku-tu-zo-va with the French ar-mi-it happened on August 26, 1812, yes-that's right on July 5-7 (12 days); - If two countries take part in an historical co-existence, in different centuries they switched to a new style, Careless is-to-ri-ki of both countries can cause an even greater mess, unknowingly re-calculating the old Yes, everyone in their own way. The same Swedes at the Battle of Neva (July 15, 1240 according to Yuli-an-sky Ka-len-da-ryu) could have mis-re-counted on July 26 according to Gri-go-ri-an-sko-mu ka-len-da-ryu (+ 11 days), and the same go-re-is-to-ri-ki per-re-counted that would be on July 28 (+ 13 days).
For the sake of the right way, you are the right person to re-re-vo-da dates:
- To indicate all dates before 1582 AD. e. most often used is the Yuli-An-Kalen-Dar, introduced only on January 1, 45 BC. e.
- Yes, before the introduction of the Yuli-an-sko-go ka-len-da-rya on January 1, 45 BC. e. denoted by the so-called about-lep-ti-che-sko-mu yuli-an-sko-mu ka-len-da-ryu. Pro-lep-ti-che-sky (from the Greek “before-resurrection-scha-yu-shiy”) ka-len-dar - ka-len-dar, extended on per-ri -od before its introduction. Simply put, yes, you consider it according to Yuli-an-sky ka-len-da-ryu, despite the fact that the ka-len-dar has not yet been pri-du-man.
- To re-count dates after 1582 in those countries where, at the moment of this event, the action continued -to put the Yuli-an-sky ka-len-dar, yes-tu re-count-you-va-yut in the gri-go-ri-an-sky ka-len-dar, adding that number -lot of days, for which there were a lot of ka-len-da-ri for the moment of completion of the event.
- In re-gi-o-nah, where the Yuli-an-sky ka-len-dar is not used, yes-ti-rov-ka of all events is pro-from-in dit-xia according to the pro-lep-ti-che-mu gri-go-ri-an-sko-mu ka-len-da-ryu (definition-de-la-yu-sche-mu-da-ti-rov -ku so-by-tiy according to the pra-vi-lams of the gri-go-ri-an-sko-go ka-len-da-rya before his appearance on October 15, 1582 ).