Psychology, like any other science, has its own methods. Scientific Research Methods – these are the techniques and means by which one obtains the information necessary to make practical recommendations and construct scientific theories. The development of any science depends on how perfect the methods it uses are, how reliable and valid they are. All this is true in relation to psychology.

The phenomena studied by psychology are so complex and diverse, so difficult for scientific knowledge, that throughout the entire development of psychological science, its successes directly depended on the degree of perfection of the research methods used. Psychology became an independent science only in the middle of the 19th century, so it very often relies on the methods of other, “older” sciences - philosophy, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, biology and history. In addition, psychology uses methods of modern sciences such as computer science and cybernetics.

It should be emphasized that any independent science has only its own methods. Psychology also has such methods.

Basic methods: observation, survey, experiment, testing, modeling. Auxiliary: all others, for example, content analysis, biographical method, study of products of activity, graphic method, analysis of independent characteristics, etc.

As a rule, all methods are classified according to one criterion or another.

Currently, you can find a large number of various classifications of psychological methods. All of these classifications are good in their own way. But we will dwell on the characteristics of only some of the most complete ones.

All methods of psychology can be divided into: organizational, empirical, data processing methods, interpretive methods, methods of influence or correction.

Methods can be divided into two main groups: subjective and objective (Fig.).

Subjective methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science, subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, introspection and questioning.

Observation method in psychology is one of the oldest and at first glance the simplest. It is based on systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out under normal living conditions without any deliberate intervention on the part of the observer. Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, based on the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Observation is a method that all people use. However, scientific observation and the observation that most people use in everyday life have a number of significant differences. Scientific observation is characterized by systematicity and is carried out on the basis of a specific plan in order to obtain an objective picture. Consequently, scientific observation requires special training, during which special knowledge is acquired and contributes to the objectivity of the psychological interpretation of quality.

Observation can be carried out in a variety of ways. For example, it is quite widely used participant observation method. This method is used in cases where the psychologist himself is a direct participant in the events. However, if, under the influence of the personal participation of the researcher, his perception and understanding of the event may be distorted, then it is better to turn to third-party observation, which allows a more objective judgment of the events taking place. Participant observation in its content is very close to another method - self-observation.

Introspection, i.e. observation of one’s experiences, is one of the specific methods used only in psychology. It should be noted that this method, in addition to its advantages, has a number of disadvantages. Firstly, it is very difficult to observe your experiences. They either change under the influence of observation or stop altogether. Secondly, during self-observation it is very difficult to avoid subjectivity, since our perception of what is happening is subjective. Thirdly, during self-observation it is difficult to express some shades of our experiences.

Nevertheless, the method of introspection is very important for a psychologist. When confronted in practice with the behavior of other people, the psychologist seeks to understand its psychological content. In most cases, he turns to his experience, including the analysis of his experiences. Therefore, in order to work successfully, a psychologist must learn to objectively assess his condition and his experiences.

Self-observation is often used in experimental settings. In this case, it acquires the most accurate character and is usually called experimental introspection. Its characteristic feature is that the interview of a person is carried out under precisely taken into account experimental conditions, at those moments that most interest the researcher. In this case, the self-observation method is very often used in conjunction with the survey method.

Survey is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers. There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. There are three main types of questioning: oral, written and free.

Oral survey, as a rule, is used in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject. However, this version of the survey requires more time to conduct, as well as special training for the researcher, since the degree of objectivity of the answers very often depends on the behavior and personal characteristics of the researcher himself.

Written survey allows you to reach a larger number of people in a relatively short time. The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that it is impossible to predict the reaction of the subjects to its questions and change its content during the study.

Free poll- a type of written or oral survey in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance. When conducting a survey of this type, you can change the tactics and content of the study quite flexibly, which allows you to obtain a variety of information about the subject. At the same time, a standard survey requires less time and, most importantly, the information obtained about a particular subject can be compared with information about another person, since in this case the list of questions does not change.

The widespread introduction of mathematics into psychology determined the need to develop methods that make it possible to repeatedly carry out the same type of research, i.e., it required solving the problem of standardization of procedures and techniques.

The main meaning of standardization is that in order to ensure the lowest probability of error when comparing the results of psychological examinations of two people or several groups, it is necessary, first of all, to ensure the use of the same methods, stably, i.e., regardless of external conditions measuring the same psychological characteristics.

These psychological methods include tests . This method is used most often. Its popularity is due to the possibility of obtaining an accurate and high-quality characterization of a psychological phenomenon, as well as the ability to compare research results, which is primarily necessary for solving practical problems. Tests differ from other methods in that they have a clear procedure for collecting and processing data, as well as a psychological interpretation of the results obtained.

It is customary to distinguish several variants of tests: questionnaire tests, task tests, projective tests.

Test questionnaire as a method it is based on the analysis of test subjects' answers to questions that allow one to obtain reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic. Judgment about the development of this characteristic is made on the basis of the number of answers that coincide in their content with the idea of ​​it. Test task involves obtaining information about a person’s psychological characteristics based on an analysis of the success of performing certain tasks. In tests of this type, the test taker is asked to complete a certain list of tasks. The number of tasks completed is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality. Most tests to determine the level of mental development fall into this category.

One of the very first attempts to develop tests was made by F. Galton (1822-1911). At the International Exhibition in London in 1884, Galton organized an anthropometric laboratory (later transferred to the South Kensington Museum in London). Over nine thousand subjects passed through it, in whom, along with height, weight, etc., various types of sensitivity, reaction time and other sensorimotor qualities were measured. The tests and statistical methods proposed by Galton were later widely used to solve practical problems of life. This was the beginning of the creation of applied psychology, called “psychotechnics”.

In 1905, the French psychologist A. Binet created one of the first psychological tests - a test for assessing intelligence. At the beginning of the 20th century. The French government commissioned Binet to compile a scale of intellectual abilities for schoolchildren in order to use it to correctly distribute schoolchildren according to levels of education. Subsequently, various scientists create entire series of tests. Their focus on quickly solving practical problems led to the rapid and widespread dissemination of psychological tests. For example, G. Münsterberg (1863-1916) proposed tests for professional selection, which were created as follows: initially they were tested on a group of workers who achieved the best results, and then newly hired workers were subjected to them. Obviously, the premise of this procedure was the idea of ​​interdependence between the mental structures necessary for the successful performance of an activity and those structures thanks to which the subject copes with tests.

During the First World War, the use of psychological tests became widespread. At this time, the United States was actively preparing to enter the war. However, they did not have the same military potential as other warring parties. Therefore, even before entering the war (1917), the military authorities turned to the country's largest psychologists E. Thorndike (1874-1949), R. Yerkes (1876-1956) with a proposal to lead the solution to the problem of applying psychology in military affairs. The American Psychological Association and universities quickly began working in this direction. Under Yerkes' leadership, the first group tests were created to mass assess the suitability (mainly on intelligence) of conscripts for service in various branches of the military: the Army Alpha test for literate people and the Army Beta test for illiterate people. The first test was similar to A. Binet's verbal tests for children. The second test consisted of nonverbal tasks. 1,700,000 soldiers and about 40,000 officers were examined. The distribution of indicators was divided into seven parts. In accordance with this, according to the degree of suitability, the subjects were divided into seven groups. The first two groups included persons with the highest abilities to perform the duties of officers and who were subject to assignment to the appropriate military educational institutions. The three subsequent groups had average statistical indicators of the abilities of the population under study.

At the same time, the development of tests as a psychological method was carried out in Russia. The development of this direction in Russian psychology of that time is associated with the names of A. F. Lazursky (1874-1917), G. I. Rossolimo (1860-1928), V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) and P. F. Lesgaft ( 1837-1909).

A particularly notable contribution to the development of test methods was made by G. I. Rossolimo, who was known not only as a neurologist, but also as a psychologist. To diagnose individual mental properties, he developed a method for their quantitative assessment, which gives a holistic picture of the personality.

Today, tests are the most widely used method of psychological research. However, it is necessary to note the fact that the tests occupy an intermediate position between subjective and objective methods. This is due to the wide variety of test methods. There are tests based on the subjects' self-report, for example, questionnaire tests. When performing these tests, the test taker can consciously or unconsciously influence the test result, especially if he knows how his answers will be interpreted. But there are also more objective tests. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to include projective tests. This category of tests does not use self-reports from subjects. They assume free interpretation by the researcher of the tasks performed by the subject. For example, based on the most preferred choice of color cards for a subject, a psychologist determines his emotional state. In other cases, the subject is presented with pictures depicting an uncertain situation, after which the psychologist offers to describe the events reflected in the picture, and based on the analysis of the subject’s interpretation of the depicted situation, a conclusion is drawn about the characteristics of his psyche. However, tests of the projective type place increased demands on the level of professional training and practical experience of the psychologist, and also require a sufficiently high level of intellectual development in the test subject.

Objective data can be obtained using experiment - a method based on the creation of an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than other psychological methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural. They differ from each other in the conditions of the experiment.

Laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be assessed. Natural experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they are. One of the first to use the method of natural experiment was the Russian scientist A.F. Lazursky. The data obtained in a natural experiment best corresponds to the typical life behavior of people. However, it should be borne in mind that the results of a natural experiment are not always accurate due to the experimenter’s lack of ability to strictly control the influence of various factors on the property being studied. From this point of view, the laboratory experiment wins in accuracy, but at the same time is inferior in the degree of correspondence to the life situation.

Another group of methods of psychological science consists of modeling methods . They should be classified as a separate class of methods. They are used when using other methods is difficult. Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they rely on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, their use, as a rule, does not require the participation of subjects or taking into account the real situation. Therefore, it can be very difficult to classify various modeling techniques as objective or subjective methods.

Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic, etc. In mathematical modeling use a mathematical expression or formula that reflects the relationship of variables and the relationships between them, reproducing elements and relationships in the phenomena being studied. Technical Modeling involves the creation of a device or device that in its action resembles what is being studied. Cybernetic simulation is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics to solve psychological problems. Logic modeling based on ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic.

In addition to these methods, there are other methods for studying mental phenomena. For example, conversation - survey option. The conversation method differs from a survey in greater freedom of procedure. As a rule, the conversation is conducted in a relaxed atmosphere, and the content of the questions varies depending on the situation and characteristics of the subject. Another method is document study method , or human activity analysis . It should be borne in mind that the most effective study of mental phenomena is carried out through the complex application of various methods.

Objective methods, or methods that allow obtaining results that do not depend (or depend to a small extent) on the personality of the researcher. These include: observation, experiment, testing, survey methods.

1. A type of observation - external observation - is a purposeful and systematic perception of the behavior of an object (s), subordinate to a research program, for the purpose of its subsequent analysis and explanation.

Table 1 presents the types of surveillance that need to be considered when planning a surveillance program.

Table 1. Types of observation and their characteristics

Let's look at an example to demonstrate some types of observation. The researchers conducted covert observation, where the distance between people during communication was measured. A man of average height stood in the center of the room. Various people came up to him and asked him about something, with taller men stopping closer than shorter men. Among women approaching the observed group, the trend was the opposite: tall women preferred to keep a greater distance.

So, in this case, the observation characteristic is as follows: by contact -direct(the experimenter investigates), according to the conditions of the activity - laboratory(experimental conditions have been created), according to the nature of interaction with the object - hidden(people approaching the man did not know that they were being watched) and not included(the experimenter himself did not participate in the process), in time - short-term(short period of time), after recording the results - stating(the distance between two unfamiliar interlocutors was recorded).

2. Experiment - a method of obtaining information about quantitative and qualitative changes in the performance indicators and behavior of an observed object or objects as a result of the influence of factors controlled by the researcher on it (them).

The object of research in psychology can be an animal and groups of animals, humans and groups of people. An experiment is based on the manipulation of independent variables that influence the dependent variable. The independent variable is the condition that the experimenter changes (for example, the number of people on the space station), and the dependent variable is the change in the activities and behavior of the observed objects that occurs when the independent variable changes (for example, the mental state of the astronauts).

The types of experimental research are quite diverse (Table 2).

Depending on the nature of the experimental situation, laboratory (takes place in specially created conditions) and natural (the environment remains normal for the subject) experiments are distinguished.

Table 2. Types of experiment

Depending on the degree of intervention of the experimenter in the object(s) being studied, the experiment is divided into ascertaining and formative. In a formative experiment, the goal is not only to establish the patterns of the mental phenomenon being studied, as in a ascertaining experiment, but also to use these patterns to achieve the results necessary for the researcher. Most often, formative experimentation is used in pedagogy.

Depending on the specifics of the tasks assigned, there are research experiment And an experiment aimed at solving a practical problem.

Hypothesis testing can be carried out in pilot experiment, when the area under study is unknown, there is no system of hypotheses. IN decisive experiment There are two competing hypotheses; it is necessary to prove which one is correct. Control experiment carried out to check dependencies. During educational experiment the formation of psychological processes occurs, for example, such as memory, attention, thinking.

Depending on the logical structure of the proof of the hypothesis, the experiment is divided into consistent(or linear), parallel And cross. In a parallel experiment, there is an experimental group and a control group in which the independent variables are not changed. The proof is based on a comparison of the experimental and control groups. In a sequential experiment, only one object is studied and the proof is based on a comparison of the state of this object before and after the impact. In a crossover experiment, the experimental and control groups switch places.

The following experimental methods are used in general psychology:

• the structural-analytical method is used in laboratory conditions, for example, in psychophysics, in studies of memory, attention, and thinking;
• The experimental genetic method is used in developmental and educational psychology. For example, with its help, an experimenter can investigate the origin and development of certain functions in a child;
• longitudinal study - a long-term and systematic study of the same subjects, allowing us to determine age-related and individual variability in the phases of a person’s life cycle;
• experimental pathological method (method of syndromic analysis) - it is used to study the changes that appear in the case of brain injuries, brain pathology, etc. This method is important for neuro- and pathopsychology.
• 3. Testing is a method of studying the psychological properties and states of a person using tests. Tests are standardized tasks that require a solution, answer, or description.

Standardized tasks make it possible to subject the received answers to mathematical and statistical processing and identify characteristics that distinguish one person from another or from other people. Research data can be compared with norm results obtained from examining a statistically significant group of a certain age, gender, nationality, profession, etc.

Testing is used for:

• professional guidance and professional selection;
• studying the level of knowledge acquisition;
• providing psychological assistance;
• studying the level of individual development.

The number and variety of various kinds of tests, questionnaires, scales is enormous. Some of the first test developments belonged to F. Galton, who used them to measure mental properties and developed a method of mathematical statistics for analyzing the results of the study. D. Cattell created “mental tests”, G. Ebbinghaus measured memory in schoolchildren.

Main types of tests:

Achievement tests show the test taker's level of proficiency in specific knowledge, skills and abilities.

Intelligence tests reveal mental potential. The criterion is a set of concepts, terms and logical relationships between them.

Creativity tests evaluate an individual's creative abilities.

Personality tests allow us to identify various aspects of an individual’s personality: attitudes, values, relationships, emotional, motivational, interpersonal properties, typical forms of behavior.

Projective tests allow you to navigate complex personality traits that cannot be accurately assessed.

4. The survey method is used to obtain from subjects the necessary information on previously prepared questions.

Depending on the form of contact between the researcher and the subjects, surveys are conducted in the form of a conversation (interview) or questionnaire.

Questioning is a method of collecting research data based on a survey using questionnaires. A questionnaire is a system of questions united by a single design (goal) aimed at identifying the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the subject of analysis.

The survey questions should:

• 1. Answer the research problem.
• 2. Have clear, specific and tactful language.
• 3. To be understood equally by all respondents.

A conversation is a method of collecting facts about psychological phenomena in the process of personal communication according to a specially designed program.

The conversation could be:

• a) standardized (precisely formulated questions are asked to all respondents);
• b) non-standardized (questions are asked in free form).

The success of the conversation depends on:

• a) the degree of its preparedness (the presence of a goal, a plan for the conversation, taking into account age and individual characteristics and the conditions for its conduct).
• b) the sincerity of the answers given (the presence of trust, tact of the researcher, correctness of asking questions).

The conversation can be individual or group, and the survey can be in person or by correspondence.

Depending on the information medium, the survey can be expert or mass. In the first, only experts are interviewed. Depending on the breadth of coverage, a sample or complete survey is possible. In the second case, it is carried out with all representatives of the group or community being studied.

5. Analysis of performance results as a method of psychological research is a targeted study of the products of human activity, which makes it possible to determine the individual psychological characteristics of the subject(s) of activity. This method is based on a theoretical approach about the relationship between internal mental processes and external forms of behavior and activity.

The objects of analysis can be essays on a given topic, drawings, design results, behavior in a given situation, practical, theoretical and literary activities.

Temporary, quantitative and qualitative performance indicators are analyzed. Quality indicators include operational efficiency, reliability, error-free performance, versatility, timeliness, and flexibility.

Varieties of the method of analyzing performance results are content analysis and graphology.

Content analysis is used to determine the psychological characteristics of the author of the text based on the semantic expressions he most often uses.

Graphology as a method of psychological research is to identify the characteristics of a person’s character by his handwriting.

Results obtained using objective methods are usually processed using mathematical and statistical methods.

Subjective methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science, subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, introspection and questioning.

Observation method in psychology is one of the oldest and at first glance the simplest. It is based on systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out under normal living conditions without any deliberate intervention on the part of the observer. Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, based on the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Survey is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers. There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.

ü Oral survey, as a rule, it is used in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject.

ü Written survey allows you to reach a larger number of people in a relatively short time. The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire.

ü Free poll - a type of written or oral survey in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance.

Test questionnaire as a method it is based on the analysis of test subjects' answers to questions that allow one to obtain reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic. Judgment about the development of this characteristic is made on the basis of the number of answers that coincide in their content with the idea of ​​it. Test task involves obtaining information about a person’s psychological characteristics based on an analysis of the success of completing certain tasks. In tests of this type, the test taker is asked to complete a certain list of tasks. The number of tasks completed is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality. Most tests to determine the level of mental development fall into this category.

Objective data can be obtained using experiment - a method based on the creation of an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than other psychological methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural. Laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be assessed. Natural the experiment is organized and carried out in normal life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they are.

Simulation. They should be classified as a separate class of methods. They are used when using other methods is difficult. Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they rely on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, their use, as a rule, does not require the participation of subjects or taking into account the real situation. Therefore, it can be very difficult to classify various modeling techniques as objective or subjective methods.

Subjective method.

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	Subjective method.
Rubric (thematic category)	Psychology

The subjective method consisted of describing the phenomena of consciousness in the process of self-observation. This method is called "introspection"(from Latin introspectare - I look inside, I peer).

Method of introspection, starting from works R. Descartes(1596 - 1650) and J. Locke(1632 - 1704) and before V. Wundt(1832 - 1920), was a support teachings that human consciousness is cognized fundamentally differently than the external world, cognizable with the help of the senses.

The task of psychology was seen to be to describe the forms of mental life and mental phenomena through internal contemplation of mental images, thoughts, and experiences. At the same time, the change in states of consciousness was explained by the action of a special force of spiritual substance (primary principle).

It was this explanatory position that aroused the greatest criticism, since it excluded an objective, causal explanation of mental processes as products of objective development, as well as raising questions about the origin of the psyche and its mechanisms.

Founder of Positivism O. Comte(1798 - 1857), justifying the need for an objective method in science, opposed metaphysical theories that explain the observed facts of mental life by the action of special substances. He believed that internal observation gives rise to almost as many contradictory opinions as there are people who believe that they are engaged in it.

At the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century, several theories of the psychology of consciousness were put forward within the framework of introspective psychology. These include

Subjective method. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Subjective method." 2015, 2017-2018.

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One of the main tasks of psychological science was the development of such objective research methods that would be based on the usual methods for all other sciences of observing the progress of a particular type of activity and on experimentally changing the conditions for the flow of this activity. They became the experimental method and the method of observing human behavior in natural and experimental conditions.

Observation method. If we study a phenomenon without changing the conditions under which it occurs, then we are talking about simple objective observation. There are direct and indirect observations. An example of direct observation would be studying a person's reaction to a stimulus or observing the behavior of children in a group if we are studying types of contact. Direct observations are also divided into active (scientific) and passive or ordinary (everyday). Repeated many times, everyday observations accumulate in proverbs, sayings, metaphors, and in this regard they are of certain interest for cultural and psychological study. Scientific observation presupposes a very specific goal, task, and observation conditions. Moreover, if we try to change the conditions or circumstances under which the observation is made, then this will already be an experiment.

Indirect observation is used in situations where we want to use objective methods to study mental processes that are not amenable to direct observation. For example, to establish the degree of fatigue or tension when a person performs a certain job. The researcher can use methods for recording physiological processes (electroencephalograms, electromyograms, galvanic skin response, etc.), which themselves do not reveal the peculiarities of the course of mental activity, but can reflect the general physiological conditions characterizing the course of the processes being studied.

In research practice, objective observations also differ in a number of other ways.

By the nature of the contact - direct observation, when the observer and the object of observation are in direct contact and interaction, and indirect, when the researcher gets to know the observed subjects indirectly, through specially organized documents such as questionnaires, biographies, audio or video recordings, etc.

According to the conditions of observation - field observation, which takes place in the conditions of everyday life, study or work, and laboratory observation, when a subject or group is observed in artificial, specially created conditions.

Based on the nature of interaction with the object, a distinction is made between included observation, when the researcher becomes a member of the group, and his presence and behavior become part of the observed situation, and non-involved observation (from the outside), i.e. without interacting or establishing any contact with the person or group being studied.

There is also open observation, when the researcher reveals his role to the observed (the disadvantage of this method is the reduction in the natural behavior of the observed subjects), and hidden (incognito), when the presence of the observer is not reported to the group or individual.

According to the goals, observation is distinguished: purposeful, systematic, approaching experimental in its conditions, but differing in that the observed subject is not limited in the freedom of his manifestations, and random, exploratory, not subject to any rules and not having a clearly defined goal. There are cases when researchers working in search mode managed to make observations that were not part of their original plans. In this way, major discoveries were made. For example, P. Fress describes how in 1888 a neuropsychiatrist drew attention to the complaints of a patient whose skin was so dry that in cold, dry weather she felt sparks jumping from her skin and hair. He had the idea to measure the static charge on her skin. As a result, he stated that this charge disappears under the influence of certain stimulations. This is how the psychogalvanic reflex was discovered. It later became known as galvanic skin response (GSR). In the same way, I.P. Pavlov, during his experiments on the physiology of digestion, discovered conditioned reflexes