Lecture 9

Physiology of movement and physiology of activity

Movement organization mechanisms according to N. A. Bernshtein: the principle of sensory corrections, the scheme of the reflex ring, the theory of levels

In this and the next lectures, you will get acquainted with the concept of the outstanding Soviet scientist N. A. Bernshtein. We have a number of reasons to turn to this concept.

In the works of N. A. Bernshtein, she found a brilliant development the problem of the mechanisms of organization of human movements and actions. Dealing with this problem, N. A. Bernshtein revealed himself as a very psychologically thinking physiologist (which is extremely rare). As a result, his theory and the mechanisms he identified turned out to be organically combined with the theory of activity, allowing us to deepen our understanding of its operational and technical aspects.

But that's not all. N. A. Bernstein appeared in the scientific literature as a passionate defender of the principle of activity - one of those principles on which, as you already know, the psychological theory of activity is based. We will analyze his ideas expressed in order to defend and develop this principle. Finally, the theory of N. A. Bernstein will be extremely useful for us in discussing the so-called psychophysical problem (Lecture 13), where we will talk, in particular, about the possibilities and limitations of physiological explanation in psychology.

Nikolai Alexandrovich Bernshtein(1896-1966) was a neuropathologist by education, and in this capacity he worked in hospitals during the Civil and Great Patriotic Wars. But the most fruitful was his work as an experimenter and theorist in a number of scientific fields - physiology, psychophysiology, biology, cybernetics.

He was a man of very versatile talents: he was fond of mathematics, music, linguistics, engineering. However, he concentrated all his knowledge and abilities on solving main problem his life - the study of the movements of man and animals. Thus, mathematical knowledge allowed him to become the founder of modern biomechanics, in particular the biomechanics of sports. The practice of a neuropathologist provided him with a huge amount of factual material regarding movement disorders in various diseases and injuries of the central nervous system. Music lessons made it possible to subject the pianist and violinist to the most subtle analysis of the movements: he experimented, including on himself, observing the progress of his own piano technique. Engineering knowledge and skills helped N. A. Bernshtein to improve the methods of recording movements - he created a number of new techniques for recording complex movements. Finally, linguistic interests undoubtedly affected the style in which his scientific works were written: the texts of N. A. Bernstein are one of the most poetic examples of scientific literature. His language is distinguished by conciseness, clarity and at the same time extraordinary liveliness and imagery. Of course, all these qualities of the language reflected the qualities of his thinking.

In 1947, one of the main books of N. A. Bernshtein “On the Construction of the Movement” was published, which was awarded the State Prize. On the title of the book was a dedication: "To the bright, unfading memory of comrades who gave their lives in the struggle for the Soviet Motherland."

This book reflected the results of almost thirty years of work by the author and his collaborators in the field of experimental, clinical and theoretical studies of movements and expressed a number of completely new ideas.

One of them consisted in refuting the principle of the reflex arc as a mechanism for organizing movements and replacing it with the principle of the reflex ring, which I will discuss in more detail. This point of the concept of N. A. Bernshtein contained, therefore, a criticism of the point of view that prevailed at that time in the physiology of higher nervous activity on the mechanism of the conditioned reflex as a universal principle for the analysis of higher nervous activity.

Soon, difficult years came for N. A. Bernstein. Colleagues and even some former students of N. A. Bernstein sometimes criticized his new ideas at organized discussions, sometimes incorrectly and incompetently. During this difficult period for himself, Nikolai Alexandrovich did not abandon any of his ideas, paying for it, as it turned out later, by losing forever the opportunity to conduct experimental research work.

The last period of the life of N. A. Bernshtein was busy with special activities. Scientists and scientists of various professions went to his house: doctors, physiologists, mathematicians, cybernetics, musicians, linguists - for scientific conversations. They sought his advice, assessments, consultations, new points of view. (You can read about this in detail in the article by V. L. Naidin “A miracle that is always with you” (79).) The other half of the day, N. A. Bernstein was busy with his own scientific, theoretical work - he summed up and again comprehended the results obtained in previous periods of his life.

Already after his death, many learned that two years before his death, N.A. Bernstein himself diagnosed himself with liver cancer, after which he was deregistered from all clinics and strictly painted the remaining life span, which he also determined to within a month. He managed to finish and even look over the proofs of his last book, Essays on the Physiology of Movement and the Physiology of Activity (15).

The famous Russian psychiatrist P. B. Gannushkin, describing one of the types of human personalities, wrote: “Here you can find people occupying positions at those peaks of the realm of ideas, in the rarefied air of which it is difficult for an ordinary person to breathe. These include: refined aesthetic artists ... thoughtful metaphysicians, finally, talented schematic scientists and brilliant revolutionaries in science, thanks to their ability to make unexpected comparisons with intrepid courage, transforming, sometimes beyond recognition, the face of the discipline in which they work "(25, p. 386). Reading these lines, you immediately remember N. A. Bernstein: it was precisely the talented revolutionary scientist who transformed discipline beyond recognition and precisely “with intrepid courage”!

And now let's consider in detail some of the main provisions of the concept of N. A. Bernshtein.

The key to the success of Bernstein's work was that he abandoned the traditional methods of studying movements. Before him, movements were usually forced into a Procrustean bed of laboratory procedures and attitudes; in their study, the nerves were often cut, the centers were destroyed, the animal was externally immobilized (with the exception of that part of the body that interested the experimenter), frogs were decapitated, dogs were tied to a machine, etc.

N. A. Bernshtein made the natural movements of a normal, intact organism, and mainly the movements of a person, the object of study. Thus, the contingent of movements in which he was engaged was immediately determined; these were labor, sports, household movements. Of course, development was required special methods registration of movements, which was successfully carried out by Bernstein.

Before the works of N. A. Bernstein, there was an opinion in physiology (which was also stated in textbooks) that a motor act is organized as follows: at the stage of learning to move in the motor centers, its program is formed and fixed; then, as a result of the action of some stimulus, it is excited, motor command impulses go to the muscles, and the movement is realized. Thus, in the most general form, the movement mechanism was described by a reflex arc scheme: a stimulus - the process of its central processing (excitation of programs) - a motor reaction.

The first conclusion reached by N. A. Bernshtein was that any complex movement could not be carried out in this way. Generally speaking, a very simple movement, such as the knee jerk or pulling the hand away from the fire, can result from the direct conduction of motor commands from the center to the periphery. But complex motor acts, which are designed to solve some problem, achieve some result, cannot be built like that. The main reason is that the result of any complex movement depends not only on the actual control signals, but also on a number of additional factors. What these factors are, I will say a little later, but now I will only note their common property: they all introduce deviations into the planned course of movement, but they themselves are not amenable to preliminary accounting. As a result, the ultimate goal of a movement can only be achieved if it is continuously amended or corrected. And for this, the central nervous system must know what the real fate of the current movement is. In other words, the CNS must continuously receive afferent signals containing information about the actual course of movement, and then be processed into correction signals.

Thus, N. A. Bernstein proposed a completely new principle of motion control. He called him the principle of sensory correction, referring to the corrections made to motor impulses based on sensory information about the course of movement.

And now let's get acquainted with additional factors that, in addition to motor commands, affect the course of movement.

First, this reactive forces. If you wave your hand strongly, then reactive forces will develop in other parts of the body, which will change their position and tone.

This is clearly seen in those cases when you have an unstable support under your feet. An inexperienced person standing on the ice runs the risk of falling if he hits the puck too hard with his stick, although, of course, this fall is not planned in any way in his motor centers. If the child climbs onto the sofa and starts throwing the ball from it, then the mother immediately lowers it down; she knows that by throwing the ball, he can fly off the couch; reactive forces will again be to blame.

Secondly, this inertial forces. If you raise your hand sharply, then it takes off not only due to those motor impulses that are sent to the muscles, but from a certain moment it moves by inertia. The influence of inertial forces is especially great in those cases when a person works with a heavy tool - an ax, a hammer, etc. But they also take place in any other movement. For example, when running, a significant part of the movement of the forward leg is due to these forces.

Thirdly, this external forces. If the movement is directed towards an object, then it necessarily meets with its resistance, and this resistance is by no means always predictable. Imagine that you are rubbing the floor by sliding your foot. The resistance of the floor at each moment may differ from the previous one, and you cannot know it in advance. The same is true when working with a cutter, planer, screwdriver. In all these and many other cases, it is impossible to put into account the changing external forces in the motor programs.

Finally, the last unplanned factor - original state of the muscle.

The state of the muscle changes in the course of movement along with a change in its length, as well as as a result of fatigue. Therefore, the same control impulse, coming to the muscle, can give a completely different motor effect.

So, the action of all these factors necessitates continuous accounting of information about the state of the motor apparatus and the direct course of movement. This information is called feedback signals. By the way, the role of feedback signals in motion control, as well as in control problems in general, was described by N. A. Bernshtein long before the appearance of similar ideas in cybernetics.

The thesis that without taking into account information about the movement, the latter cannot be carried out, has strong factual evidence.

Let's consider two examples. The first one I take from the monograph by N. A. Bernshtein (14).

There is such a disease - the tabes of the spinal cord, in which the pathways of proprioceptive, i.e., muscle and joint, as well as skin sensitivity are affected. At the same time, the patient has a completely intact motor system: the motor centers are intact, the motor pathways in the spinal cord are intact, his muscles are in a normal state. There are no only afferent signals from the musculoskeletal system. And as a result, the movements are completely upset. So, if the patient closes his eyes, he cannot walk; also, with his eyes closed, he cannot hold the glass - it slips out of his hands. All this happens because the subject does not know what position, for example, his legs, arms or other parts of the body are, whether they move or not, what is the tone and condition of the muscles, etc. But if such a patient opens his eyes and if he even on the floor they draw stripes along which he must pass (that is, they organize visual information about his own movements), then he goes more or less successfully. The same happens with various manual movements.

Another example I take from the relatively new experimental research on the organization of speech movements.

When a person speaks, he receives feedback signals about the work of his articulatory apparatus in two forms: in the form of the same proprioceptive signals (we have sensitive "sensors" in the muscles of the larynx of the tongue, the entire oral cavity) and in the form of auditory signals.

In general, feedback signals from movements are often paralleled, i.e., they arrive simultaneously through several channels. For example, when a person walks, he feels his steps with the help of a muscular sense and can simultaneously see and hear them. It is the same in the case under discussion: perceiving proprioceptive signals from his speech movements, a person simultaneously clearly hears the sounds of his speech. I will now prove that both of these signals are used to organize speech movements.

Modern laboratory technology allows you to put a person in completely unusual conditions. The subject is offered to pronounce some text, for example, a familiar poem. This text is fed into his headphones through a microphone, but with some delay; thus, the subject hears what he said a few seconds ago, and what he says in this moment he doesn't hear. It turns out that under these conditions a person's speech is completely detuned; he is unable to speak at all!

What's the matter here? It cannot be said that in the described experiments the subject is deprived of feedback signals: both sensory channels - muscular and auditory - are functioning. It's all about what they do inconsistent, contradictory information. So, on the basis of one information, one speech movement should be made, and on the basis of another, another movement. As a result, the subject cannot make any movement.

I note that the described method of feedback signals “mistake” is used to identify persons simulating deafness: if a person really does not hear, then the delay in feedback signals through the auditory canal does not cause him any speech disorder; if he only pretends to be deaf, then this technique works flawlessly.

Let's move on to the next important point in the theory of N.A. Bernshtein - to the scheme of the reflex ring. This scheme follows directly from the principle of sensory corrections and serves as its further development.

Consider first a simplified version of this scheme (Fig. 6, a).

There is a motor center (M), from which effector commands are sent to the muscle. Let's depict it as a block below, keeping in mind also the operating point of the moving organ (t). From the operating point, feedback signals go to the sensory center (S); they are sensory or afferent signals. In the central nervous system, the information received is processed, i.e., it is recoded into motor correction signals. These signals are sent back to the muscle. It turns out a ring process of control.

This scheme will become more understandable if we introduce the time base of the process (Fig. 6, b). Let us assume that what has just been said refers to the moment t1; new effector signals lead to the movement of the operating point along a given trajectory (moment t2), etc.

How does the classic reflex arc scheme relate to such a “ring”? We can say that it is a special, moreover, "degenerate" case of a ring: according to the arc scheme, rigidly programmed, elementary short-term acts are performed that do not need corrections. I have already mentioned them: these are movements such as the knee jerk, blinking, etc. The reverse afferentation in them loses its significance, and the external triggering signal acquires a decisive role (Fig. 6, c). For most movements, the functioning of the ring is necessary.

Now let's turn to a later version of the "ring" scheme of N. A. Bernshtein; it is more detailed and therefore allows a much more complete representation of the process of control of motor acts (Fig. 7).

There are motor "outputs" (effector), sensory "inputs" (receptor), a working point or object (if we are talking about an objective action) and a block of recoding. New are several central blocks - the program, the setting device and the comparison device.

The ring functions as follows. The program contains the successive stages of a complex movement. At each given moment, some particular stage or element of it is worked out, and the corresponding particular program descends into the master device.

Signals from the master device are sent to the comparison device; N. A. Bernstein designates them with two Latin letters SW(from German Soll Wert, which means "what should be"). Feedback signals come to the same block from the receptor, reporting on the state of the operating point; they are marked IW(from German Ist Wert, which means "what is"). In the comparison device, these signals are compared, and the output from it is D W, i.e. signals of mismatch between the required and the actual state of affairs. They get to the recoding block, from where correction signals come out; through intermediate central authorities (regulator) they fall on effector.

Let's analyze the functioning of the control ring on the example of some real movement.

Suppose a gymnast is working on rings. The whole combination is entirely contained in his motor program. In accordance with the program, he needs to do a handstand at some point (by the way, the most difficult element!).

From programs descends into setting device the corresponding order, and signals are formed in it SW, who go to comparison device. These signals will match the afferent signals (I.W.). This means that they themselves must have a sensory-perceptual nature, that is, they must represent an image of movement. Such an image is provided primarily by signals from the proprioceptive and visual modalities; this is a “picture” of the stance both from the point of view of its general appearance and from the point of view of its motor-technical composition - position, body parts, center of gravity, distribution of the tone of various muscles, etc.

So, both the image of movement and information from all receptors about the realized movement enter the comparison device.

Let's assume that, going to the rack, the athlete made too strong a swing and he began to tilt back - there is a danger of tipping over. What happens then? Signals about excessive backward thrust were received from the comparison device to the decoding unit. These signals ( D W) report that not everything is in order, that it is necessary to send correction signals to correct this situation. Such signals are received, the correction is taking place. In the next cycle of the ring, the signals are again compared SW and I.W. It may turn out that D W= 0; this is the ideal case. It means that this element has been completed and you can proceed to the implementation of the next item of the program.

On the Bernstein scheme, one interesting arrow can be seen that goes from the receptor to the master device. It means the following: in the course of movement, situations occur when it is more economical not to give corrections to the current movement, but simply to rebuild it, to put it on a different channel, that is, to change its particular program. Then the appropriate decision is made in micro-intervals of time, and this reveals the motor resourcefulness of the organism. Thus, not only a quiet "descent" of private programs into the master device can take place, but also their emergency restructuring. I think you can easily find similar examples yourself. This happens in the conditions of the fight between predator and prey, the meeting of boxers, in sports games, etc., where the situation is constantly changing.

So, the principle of sensory corrections and the control scheme for the reflex ring, which follows from this principle, were analyzed.

Let me move on to the next major contribution of N. A. Bernstein - to theory of movement levels.

This theory can be logically bridged from the reflex ring by paying special attention to the quality of the afferent signals coming from movement.

Specially investigating this issue on a very extensive material, using data from phylo- and ontogenesis, pathology and experimental studies, N. A. Bernshtein discovered the following. Depending on what information the feedback signals carry: whether they report on the degree of muscle tension, on the relative position of body parts, on the speed or acceleration of the movement of the working point, on its spatial position, on the objective result of the movement, the afferent signals come in different sensitive centers of the brain and, accordingly, switch to motor pathways on different levels. Moreover, levels should be understood literally as morphological “layers” in the CNS. Thus, the levels of the spinal and medulla oblongata, the level of subcortical centers, and the levels of the cortex were identified. But I will not now go into anatomical details, since they require special knowledge. I will only stop at brief description each of the levels identified by N. A. Bernshtein, and I will illustrate them with examples.

It must be said that each level has specific motor manifestations peculiar only to it, each level has its own class of movements.

Level A - the lowest and phylogenetically the most ancient. In humans, it does not have independent significance, but it manages a very important aspect of any movement - muscle tone. He participates in the organization of any movement together with other levels.

True, there are a few movements that are independently regulated by level A: these are involuntary trembling, teeth chattering from cold and fear, fast vibrato (7–8 Hz) in piano playing, violinist's finger trembling, holding a pose in the flight phase of a jump, etc.

This level receives signals from muscle proprioceptors, which report the degree of muscle tension, as well as from balance organs.

Level B. Bernstein calls him the level of synergies. At this level, the signals from the muscle-articular receptors are mainly processed, which report on the relative position and movement of body parts. This level is thus cut off from external space, but is very well "aware" of what is happening "in the space of the body."

Level AT takes a great part in the organization of movements of higher levels, and there he takes on the task of internal coordination of complex motor ensembles. The own movements of this level include those that do not require consideration of external space: freestyle gymnastics; stretching, facial expressions, etc.

Level C. Bernstein calls it the level spatial field. It receives signals from sight, hearing, touch, that is, all information about the external space. Therefore, movements are built on it, adapted to the spatial properties of objects - to their shape, position, length, weight, etc. Among them are all displacement movements: walking, climbing, running, jumping, various acrobatic movements; exercises on gymnastic equipment; hand movements of a pianist or typist; ballistic movements - grenade throwing, ball throwing, playing tennis and gorodki; aiming movements - playing billiards, aiming a telescope, shooting from a rifle; goalkeeper throws at the ball.

Level D named level subject actions. This is the cortical level, which manages the organization of actions with objects. It almost exclusively belongs to man. It includes all gun actions, manipulations with objects. Examples are the movements of a juggler, a fencer; all household movements: lacing shoes, tying a tie, peeling potatoes; the work of an engraver, surgeon, watchmaker; driving, etc.

A characteristic feature of the movements of this level is that they are consistent with the logic of the object. It's not so much movement as actions; in them the motive composition, or "pattern", of movement is not fixed at all, but only the final objective result is given. For this level, the method of performing an action, a set of motor operations, is indifferent. So, it was by means of this level that N. Paganini could play on one string when the rest of him burst. A more common household example is different ways opening a bottle: you can resort to using a corkscrew, a knife, knock out a cork by hitting the bottom, push it in, etc. In all cases, the specific movements will be different, but the end result of the action is the same. And in this sense to work level D the proverb is very suitable: "Not by washing, so by rolling."

Finally, the last, highest - level E. This is the level of intellectual motor acts, primarily speech movements, writing movements, as well as the movement of symbolic or coded speech - gestures of the deaf and dumb, Morse code. The movements of this level are determined not by the objective, but by the abstract, verbal meaning.

Now I will make two important remarks about the functioning of the levels.

First: in the organization of complex movements, as a rule, several levels are involved at once - the one on which this movement is built (it is called the leading one), and all the underlying levels.

For example, writing is a complex movement that involves all five levels. Let's trace them, moving from bottom to top.

Level BUT provides, first of all, the tone of the hand and fingers.

Level AT gives the movements of the letter a smooth roundness, providing cursive writing. If you shift the writing pen to your left hand, then the roundness and smoothness of movements disappear: the fact is that the level. B differs in the fixation of “stamps” that have been developed as a result of training and which are not transferred to other motor organs (it is interesting that when smoothness is lost, the individual features of handwriting are preserved in the left hand, because they depend on other, higher levels). So in this way we can isolate the contribution of the level AT.

Level D ensures proper grip on the pen, finally level E - the semantic side of the letter.

Developing this thesis about the joint functioning of levels, N. A. Bernshtein comes to the following important rule: only those components of movement that are built at the leading level are represented in the human mind; the work of the underlying, or "background" levels, as a rule, is not realized.

When the subject puts his thoughts on paper, he realizes the meaning of writing: the leading level on which his graphic movements are built, in this case is the level E. As for the features of handwriting, the shape of individual letters, the straightness of lines, etc., then all this is practically not present in his mind.

Second comment: formally, the same movement can be built on different leading levels.

I will illustrate this with the following example, borrowing it from N. A. Bernshtein. Take a circular motion of the hand; it can be obtained at the level BUT: for example, in piano vibrato, the hand and knuckles follow small circular paths. Circular motion can also be built at the level AT, for example by including it as an element in freestyle gymnastics.

At the level With a circular motion will be built when tracing the contour of a given circle. At the level of subject matter D circular motion can occur when tying a knot. Finally, at the level E the same movement is organized, for example, when the lecturer draws a circle on the blackboard. The lecturer does not care, as a drawing teacher would care, that the circle is metrically correct, it is enough for him to reproduce the semantic scheme.

And now the question arises: what determines the fact of building a movement at one level or another? The answer will be a very important conclusion of N. A. Bernshtein, which is given above: the leading level of movement construction is determined by meaning or task, movement.

A vivid illustration of this provision is contained in the study of A. N. Leontiev and A. V. Zaporozhets (59). Working during the Great Patriotic War on restoring hand movements of wounded soldiers, the authors discovered the following remarkable fact.

After a period of therapeutic exercises, a test was carried out with the wounded to find out how much the function of the hand was restored. To do this, he was given the task of "raising his hand as high as possible." Performing it, he raised his hand only up to a certain limit - the range of motion was severely limited. But the task changed: the patient was asked to "raise his hand to the indicated mark on the wall", and then it turned out that he was able to raise his hand 10-15 cm higher. Finally, the task changed again: it was proposed to “take the hat off the hook” - and the hand rose even higher!

What's the matter here? The fact is that in all these cases, the movement was built at different levels: the first movement (“as high as possible”) was in the coordinates of the body, i.e., at the level AT; the second (“up to this mark”) - at the level WITH, i.e. in the coordinates of external space; finally, the third ("take off your hat") - at level D). The change of levels was manifested in the fact that the movement acquired new characteristics, in particular, it was carried out with an increasing amplitude.

Similar facts are now known in large numbers. Here is another example from our own research on eye movements (29).

Human eyes are known to be very mobile and their movements are very varied. Among these movements there are those that the subject does not notice; they cannot be seen either, looking into the eyes of another person from the side; This - involuntary eye movements. They also occur when a person, as it seems to him, looks motionlessly at a point, that is, fixes it with his eyes. To detect these movements, one has to resort to very subtle and precise recording methods.

With the help of such methods, it was discovered long ago that when fixing a point, the eyes make movements of three different types: tremor with a very high frequency, drifts and jumps, which usually return the eye, displaced as a result of the drift, to a fixed point. Each of these types of movements has its own parameters: frequency, amplitude, speed, etc.

The fact that we have been able to establish is that when the task changes, all the parameters of the listed eye movements change significantly. For example, in one case, the subject was asked to “just look” at a point of light, in the other, “to detect the moments when its color will change.”

Note that the task changed, it would seem, very slightly: in the second case, as in the first, the subject had to fix the point so as not to miss the color change. Nevertheless, a change in the purpose (meaning) of fixation led to changes in fixation movements: the frequency spectrum of the tremor became different, the speed of drifts decreased, jumps occurred less frequently and with a smaller amplitude.

Such facts, as well as the general conclusion from them, are remarkable in that they show the decisive influence of such a psychological category as task, or goal, movements on the organization and course of physiological processes.

This result was a major scientific contribution

N. A. Bernstein in the physiology of movements.

At about the same time, i.e., in the mid-1930s, the presence of feedback signals in the control circuit of physiological acts was described by another Soviet physiologist, P.K. Anokhin, under the name "sanctioning afferentation" (7).

To clarify this point, it is convenient to supplement N. A. Bernshtein’s scheme with the corresponding arrow (DW = 0 in Fig. 7).

The theory of levels of construction of movements. N. A. Bernshtein and the direction of dog correction by a trainer

A brief summary of the theory of levels of construction of movements. According to Yu. B. Gippenreiter from the book "Introduction to General Psychology"

Carrying out his research, N. A. Bernshtein discovered the following. Feedback signals sent to the brain a large number of varied information. They report the degree of muscle tension, the relative position of body parts, the speed or acceleration of the working point, its spatial position, and the objective result of movement. Depending on what information the feedback signals carry: afferent signals come to different sensitive centers of the brain and, accordingly, switch to motor pathways at different levels.

Moreover, levels should be understood literally as morphological “layers” in the Central Nervous System. Each level has specific motor manifestations peculiar only to it, each level has its own class of movements.

Without going into the anatomical details of the localization of levels, we will simply describe which class of movements corresponds to which level.

Level BUT - the lowest and most ancient. Manages a very important aspect of movement muscle tone. Participates in the organization of any movement together with other levels.

Level AT–level of synergies at this level, signals from muscle-articular receptors are processed, which report on the relative position and movement of parts of the body relative to each other. This level is cut off from the outer space, but is well aware of what is being done. "in body space". He takes a great part in the organization of movements of higher levels, and there he takes on the task of internal coordination of complex movements. The own movements of this level include those that do not require taking into account external space, sipping, facial expressions, freestyle gymnastics, such as squats.

Level WITH - it receives information about outer space. Movements are built on it, adapted to the spatial properties of objects - their shape, position, length, weight, etc. Walking, running, jumping, exercises on gymnastic equipment, aiming movements, ball throws, etc.

Level D - named level substantive actions. This is the cortical level, which manages the organization of actions with objects. It includes all instrumental actions (use of tools, tools). Examples are shoe lacing, potato peeling, fencing, juggling, surgeon work, etc.

Level E is the level intellectual motor acts in. Speech movements, writing movements, Morse code, gestures of the deaf and dumb. The movements of this level are determined by an abstract, verbal meaning.

The functioning of the levels.

1. As a rule, several levels are involved in the organization of complex movements - the one on which this movement is built (it is called the leading one), and all the underlying levels.
2. Only those components of movement that are built at the leading level are represented in the human mind.
3. Formally, one and the same movement can be built at different leading levels or, in other words, used for their own purposes by different levels.
4. The leading level is determined by the meaning or task of the movement.

For example, writing is a complex movement that involves all five levels.

Level A - provides tone to the hand and fingers.

Level B - gives movements a smooth roundness, provides cursive writing.

Level C - organizes the reproduction of the geometric shape of letters, the even arrangement of lines on paper.

Level D - provides the correct possession of the pen.

Level E - provides the semantic side of the letter.

With this, I finish quoting Yu. B. Gippenreiter and pass on to my reasoning.

The reflex principle and the principle of sensory corrections

Let us ask ourselves whether in the organization of behavior, and in particular movement, there is a place for a reflex or a lot of the reflex principle, these are the simplest movements such as the blinking reflex and the knee reflex.

It is known that reflexes are not only motor, but also emotional. For example, some music caused a certain memory, and the person's mood changed. It may not even be a complete melody, but just a sound or smell, or some kind of environment, or some kind of conversational style of the interlocutor. This change happens quickly, often goes unrecognized, and very often out of control of attempts to prevent it.

Another example, a person does not want to eat, but walks past a cafe or tent and the smell or sight of the food triggers the desire to eat. The stimulus evoked motivational arousal. Sometimes it is so strong that a person is not able to fight it.

Another example, if you swap the toilet and bathroom light switches, then, even realizing that you need to press another switch, a person will stretch his hand to the old place for some time.

What, if not the principle of reflex? And what is a reflex in terms of information processing and decision making.

For adequate behavior, it is necessary to take into account all incoming information and consider all options for responding. But, this is impossible, and therefore stereotypes of perception, stereotypes of thinking, stereotypes of action are formed in order to save time and effort.

If stereotypical behavior (perception, thinking, action) does not lead to catastrophic results, but leads to a more or less acceptable result, then we are satisfied with what we have, and not the best option which we do not know and do not even come to mind.

In fact, a reflex is a reduction in the way and time of processing information, as a result of previous experience, there is an acceptance on faith that this stimulus does not think, do not think about options, there is only one adequate way to respond. There is an automatic response without taking into account all the accompanying circumstances.

An associative connection is, as it were, a ossified fragment of previous experience. Just as the skeleton helps the body, but also sets its own limits on the plasticity of this body, so interspersed with reflex connections guide and accelerate decision-making at any level.

And the presence of rigid elements (reflexes) does not negate the flexibility and plasticity of the entire behavioral system based on the principle of sensory corrections. If these hard elements are absent, the decision-making may be delayed for such a period that it will be too late to react. If there are too many of these hard elements, the response will be quick, but often inadequate to the circumstances.

Thus, it can be concluded that in order to control the system, it is necessary to build automatisms into correctly chosen levels, so that these reflexes are guaranteed to direct processing and decision making in the right direction, reaching the planned way of responding.

Application in the assessment of the training situation of the theory of levels of construction of movements

For example, we train a dog to perform styling from a standing position. The goal is to teach her to lie down without advancing. As usual it happens.

The dog hears the command and shifts from one foot to the other, or suddenly she decides to scratch herself and sniff a blade of grass. In short, she wanders around the trainer then herself or, as a result of exposure, lies sideways. What kind of work is there with moving the dog forward when he just lay down and fell on his side or curled up and decided to sleep. What's going on here? The dog goes through the possible options for its movements in space. He tries to engage in passing communication with another dog from the group, to lie down so as to get under the tail of another dog, and the owner-trainer looks at all this disgrace in full confidence that he is training a dog. The dog lay down, which means that the training took place. And the fact that the laying of the dog, this is so, is a concomitant circumstance of its movements in space (the level With), chewing sticks (level D) or licking the owner with a request to fall behind and not interfere with life (level E), this is not taken into account.

What should a trainer do when correct technique for laying a dog out of a standing position is practiced?

Provide impact at the level AT. With a leash and a treat, force the dog to lie down and back, so that the prints of its paws do not move where it stood and lay down. Let it be difficult for her, she will quickly understand what needs to be done.

When should the trainer provide corrections to the dog's movement?

From the very beginning. If the dog is in a standing position, before lying down takes a step forward, there is nothing to look at. Such a dog will certainly lie down with advancement. It is necessary to prevent its step forward by timely correction.

What task should the trainer solve?

Form automatic laying at the level AT. Designate as unique possible way laying with a completely defined position of the legs relative to the body and each other. Demand only such a performance, thereby drawing the dog's attention to the internal coordination of body parts.

Thus, we see the expediency for the trainer to clearly understand at what level the dog's behavior is currently being built and whether it is suitable for solving the training task or not.

Of course, one can be attentive and demanding to the dog without having any idea about the levels of construction of the movement.

Nevertheless, it seems that knowledge about them will be a kind of map and reference signs that will allow the trainer to more accurately assess the behavior of the dog and his actions.

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Movement Building Levels - With his research, N. A. Bernstein (1896-1966) showed and proved that motor activity is carried out not through a reflex arc (as Pavlov and his followers believed), but through the so-called reflex ring (due to the presence of feedback). This allowed Bernstein to build a substantiated and proven theory of the level construction of movements.

Key Ideas

1. In the organization of a particular movement, several levels usually participate at once: the one on which the movement is built and all the underlying ones. In a sense, this is similar to a military operation: its general course and tasks are determined at one of the command levels, this level and the lower ones usually participate in the implementation of the operation, ending with the performers (soldiers).

2. The same movement can be built on different leading levels (initiated by different levels), with different quality performance, but still the same. Running, for example, can be built at level C, D or E. In the first case, the features of running are almost not controlled by consciousness, it reflects a simple “running” or “running there”. In the second and third cases, the control of consciousness over the process of running is much higher: specific features of running are controlled, connection with some objects (for example, a soccer ball), or even the use of running not to move in space, but for some complex tasks (for example, a coach can to depict with your run how some other person runs; in the end, by running you can - if you really want to - even transmit Morse code).

3. The levels of movement building have a "permanent residence" in separate "layers" of the central nervous system, in which the levels of the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, subcortical centers, and cortex are distinguished. Each level is associated with specific, phylogenetically formed motor manifestations, each level has its own class of movements.

Level A

tone level. The lowest and phylogenetically the most ancient (its roots must be sought in the distant past, when living things had just learned to move). In humans, it is responsible for muscle tone. This level receives signals from muscle proprioceptors, thus reporting the degree of muscle tension. A typical independent manifestation of this level is trembling of the body from cold or fear.

Level B

level of synergy. Taking information from level A, as well as "settings" from higher levels, this level organizes the work of "temporary ensembles" (synergies). That is, the main task of this level is to coordinate the tension of individual muscles. A typical independent manifestation of this level is sipping, involuntary facial expressions, simple reflexes (for example, pulling your hand away from a hot one).

Level C

The level of the spatial field. Level C receives information from level B, "settings" from higher levels, and - very importantly - collects all available information from the senses about the external space. At this level, simple, non-objective movements in space are built. Running, waving arms are typical independent manifestations.

Level D

The level of subject actions. Its localization is already in the cerebral cortex. He is responsible for organizing interaction with objects. Including at this level, as a result of experience, ideas about the main physical characteristics of surrounding objects are postponed. Of great importance for the functioning of this level is the concept of goal, that is, the desired position of objects as a result of the action.

Level E

The level of intellectual motor acts. The highest level. This level includes such movements as speech, writing, symbolic or coded speech. In a sense, this level could be called "non-objective", because, unlike level D, here movements are determined not by an objective, but by an abstract meaning. If, for example, a person writes a note to his friend, then physically he has contact only with paper and a pencil, but the line that forms on paper is determined by a whole galaxy of abstract meanings: the idea of ​​​​an absent person, his personal characteristics, goals and objectives in relation to this person, about the possibility of realizing these goals and objectives through writing, as well as other meanings.