ON THE. Bernstein developed in detail theory of level organization of movements which allows decomposing complex motor acts into separate components, as well as revealing the state of brain levels, their role in the regulation of movements and actions.

Each level of construction of movements is characterized by morphological localization, leading afferentation, specific properties of movements, the main and background role in motor acts of higher levels, pathological syndromes and dysfunction.

Phylogenetically, the earliest rubrospinal level of movement regulation (level A) provides involuntary unconscious regulation of body muscle tone with the help of proprioception.

The rubrospinal level of regulation of movements begins to function from the first weeks of a child's life. In case of pathology in the activity of the rubrospinal level of regulation of movements, various dystopias, hypo- or hyperdynamic disorders are observed.

The talamopallidar level of regulation of movements (level B) begins to function in a child from the second half of the year of life, provides coordination, internal coordination constituent parts of a holistic large movement, synergy of movements and the functioning of motor stamps. The leading afferentation of the talamopallidar level is the articular-angular proprioception of one's own body. Level B activity covers expressive movements, facial expressions, pantomime, plasticity. the movements controlled by this level are automatic, machine-like, and cannot be accurately measured. With pathology in the activity of level B, various dyssenergies and asynergies, hyper- and hypodynamic disorders occur. Afferent insufficiency of this level leads to a weakening of the expressiveness of movements, facial expressions, plasticity, impoverishment of the intonation of the voice.

In the second half of the child's life, the third level of regulation of movements, the pyramidal striae (level C), also begins to function. Sensory correction of this level ensures the coordination of the motor act with the external space with the leading role of visual afferentation. Level C provides the target nature of the movements. Such movements are timely, accurate and measurable. With pathology in the activity of the pyramidal-strial level of organization of movements, paralysis and paresis, coordination disorders (dystaxia and ataxia) occur.

The cortical (parieto-premotor, objective) level of organization of movements (level D) determines the appearance of the first meaningful actions. Proprioception plays a subordinate role at this level, and the leading afferentation is not associated with receptor formations, but relies on the semantic side of the action with the object. The spatial field in which movements are organized acquires new topological categories (up, down, between, under, over, before, then). With pathology in the activity of the cortical level (lesion or underdevelopment), the semantic organization and implementation of movements (dyspraxia and apraxia) are disturbed. Higher cortical automatisms suffer. The opportunity to develop new skills is lost.

Understanding someone else's and one's own speech, written and oral expression of one's thoughts are associated with the activity of the idea level E. The action of this level is based on figurative thinking (musical, choreographic performance).

Consequently, any motor act is a complex multi-level construction, headed by a leading level (semantic structure) and a number of background levels (technical components of movements).

Introduction………………………………………………………………..2

1. Psychophysiological basis for the organization of movements……...3

1.1. The principle of sensory corrections…………………………….4

1.2. Scheme of the reflex ring………………………………6

1.3. Movement levels……………………………..7

2. Formation of motor skills……………………….10

2.1. The structure of motor skills ………...……………10

2.2. The nature of skill and training. ………………………….12

H. Level approach in the analysis of the mechanisms of mental activity………………………………………………………..…..15

15

3.2. Perception…………………..…………………………………20

Conclusion…………………………………………………………..26

References……………………………………………………27

Introduction.

The concept of the physiology of movements that currently exists in psychology was formulated and experimentally substantiated by the outstanding Russian scientist N. A. Bernshtein.

A neuropathologist by education, a physiologist by his scientific interests, N. A. Bernshtein appeared in the scientific literature as a passionate defender of the principle of activity - one of those principles on which the psychological theory of activity is built. In 1947, one of Bernstein's main books "On the Construction of Movements" was published, which was awarded the State Prize. In this book, a number of completely new ideas were expressed. One of them consisted in refuting the principle of the reflex arc as a mechanism for organizing movements and replacing it with the principle of the reflex ring.

The purpose of this work is to analyze the main aspects of the theory of construction of movements by N. A. Bershtein.

The object of study is the patterns of organization of movement.

Work tasks:

1) Describe the psychophysiological basis of the organization of movements;

2) Consider the mechanisms of skills formation;

3) Identify the main mechanisms of mental activity, such as: attention and perception.

1. Psychophysiological basis for the organization of movements.

In the works of N. A. Bernshtein, the problem of the mechanisms of organization of human movements and actions was brilliantly developed. Dealing with this problem, N. A. Bernshtein revealed himself as a very psychologically thinking physiologist, as a result, his theory and the mechanisms he identified turned out to be organically combined with the theory of activity; they allowed us to deepen our understanding of the operational and technical aspects of the activity.

N. A. Bernstein appeared in the scientific literature as a passionate defender of the principle of activity - one of those principles on which the psychological theory of activity rests.

In 1947, one of the main books of N. A. Bernshtein "On the Construction of the Movement" was published, which was awarded the State Prize. This book reflected the results of almost thirty years of work by the author and his collaborators in the field of experimental, clinical and theoretical studies of movements and expressed a number of completely new ideas.

One of them consisted in refuting the principle of the reflex arc as a mechanism for organizing movements and replacing it with the principle of the reflex ring. This point of the H.A. Bernstein thus contained a criticism of the point of view that prevailed at that time in the physiology of higher nervous activity on the mechanism of the conditioned reflex as a universal principle for analyzing higher nervous activity.

The object of study N. A. Bernshtein made the natural movements of a normal, intact organism, and, basically, the movements of a person. Thus, the contingent of movements in which he was engaged was immediately determined; these were labor, sports, household movements, etc. Of course, it took development special methods registration of movements, which was successfully carried out by Bernstein.

Before the works of N. A. Bernstein, there was an opinion in physiology (which was also stated in textbooks) that a motor act is organized as follows: at the stage of learning to move in the motor centers, its program is formed and fixed; then, as a result of the action of some stimulus, it is excited, motor command impulses go to the muscles, and the movement is realized. Thus, in the most general form, the movement mechanism was described by a reflex arc diagram: stimulus - the process of its central processing (excitation of programs) - motor reaction.

The first conclusion reached by N. A. Bernshtein was that any complex movement could not be carried out in this way. Generally speaking, a very simple movement, such as a knee jerk or pulling the hand away from the fire, can result from the direct conduction of motor commands from the center to the periphery. But complex motor acts, which are designed to solve some problem, achieve some result, cannot be built like that. The main reason is that the result of any complex movement depends not only on the actual control signals, but also on a number of additional factors.

General properties: they all introduce deviations into the planned course of movement, but they themselves are not amenable to preliminary accounting. As a result, the ultimate goal of a movement can only be achieved if it is continuously amended or corrected. And for this, the central nervous system must know what the real fate of the current movement is. In other words, the CNS must continuously receive afferent signals containing information about the actual course of movement, and then be processed into correction signals.

1.1. The principle of sensory corrections.

N. A. Bernshtein proposed a completely new principle of motion control, which was called the principle of sensory corrections. Consider the factors that, according to Bernstein, influence the progress of the movement.

First, this reactive forces. And he considered an example: for example, if a person waves his hand strongly, then in other parts of the body he will develop reactive forces that will change their position and tone.

Secondly, this inertial forces. If a person abruptly raises his hand, then it flies up not only due to those motor impulses that are sent to the muscles, but from a certain moment it moves by inertia, that is, certain inertial forces arise. N. A. Bernshtein believed that the phenomenon of inertia is present in any movement.

Thirdly, this external forces, which affect the progress of the movement. Example: if the movement is directed to any object, then it meets resistance from its side. And this resistance is most often unpredictable.

The fourth factor, according to N. A. Bernshtein: there is another factor that is not always taken into account when starting to perform movements - this is initial state of the muscles. The state of the muscle changes when performing a movement along with a change in its length, as well as as a result of fatigue and other reasons. Therefore, the same motor impulse, reaching the muscle, can give a completely different result.

There is a whole list of factors that have a direct impact on the progress of the movement. The central nervous system, according to Bernstein, needs constant information about the progress of the movement. This information is called feedback signals. These signals can simultaneously come from the muscles to the brain through several channels. He gives an example: when we move, information about the position of individual parts of the body comes from proprioceptive receptors. However, in parallel, information enters through the organs of vision. A similar picture is observed even when performing speech movements. A person receives information not only from the receptors that control the movements of the language apparatus, but also through hearing. Moreover, the information coming through different channels must be consistent, otherwise the execution of the movement becomes impossible.

1.2 Scheme of the reflex ring.

There is a certain scheme for the implementation of movement mechanisms. It was called the reflex ring diagram by Bernstein. This scheme is based on the principle of sensory corrections and is its further development.

In a simplified form, this scheme looks like this: effector commands come from the motor center (M) to the muscle (working point of the muscle). From the working point of the muscle, afferent feedback signals go to the sensory center. In the central nervous system, the information received is processed, i.e., it is recoded into motor correction signals, after which the signals again enter the muscle. It turns out a ring process of control.

The fundamental difference between the concepts of building movements based on the reflex arc and the reflex ring.

In this scheme, the reflex arc looks like one of its special cases, when movements are made that do not need correction, that is, movements of a reflex nature. Bernstein later detailed the scheme of the reflex ring. The circuit contains the following elements: motor "outputs" (effector), sensory "inputs" (receptor), working point or object (if we are talking about objective activity), decoding block, program, controller, setting device, comparison device.

With the presence of a larger number of elements, the reflex ring functions in the following way: successive stages of a complex movement are recorded in the program. At each specific moment, some particular stage or element is being worked out, the corresponding particular program is launched into the master device. Signals (SW - “what should be”) are sent from the master device to the comparison device. Feedback signals (IW - “what is”) come to the same block from the receptor, reporting on the state of the operating point. In the comparison device, these signals are compared, and at the output of it, mismatch signals (B\U) are obtained between the required and actual state of affairs. Then they get to the recoding block, from where correction signals come out, which through intermediate instances (regulator) get to the effector.

In this scheme, according to Bernstein, it is necessary to pay attention to one detail: the receptor does not always send signals to the comparison device and there are cases when the signal goes directly to the master device. This happens in those cases when it is more economical to rebuild the movement than to correct it. This is especially important in emergency situations.

1.3. Movement levels.

In addition to the reflex ring, Bernstein put forward the idea of ​​a level construction of movements. In the course of his research, he found that, depending on

what information the feedback signals carry - whether they report the degree of muscle tension, the relative position of body parts, the objective result of movement, etc. - afferent signals come to different sensory centers of the brain and switch to motor pathways on different levels. The level should be understood literally as “layers” in the central nervous system. Thus, the levels of the spinal and medulla oblongata, the level of subcortical centers, and the level of the cortex were distinguished. Each level has specific motor manifestations peculiar only to it, each level has its own class of movements.

Level A- the lowest and phylogenetically the most ancient. In humans, it does not have independent significance, but is responsible for the most important aspect of any movement - muscle tone. This level receives signals from muscle proprioceptors that report the degree of muscle tension, as well as information from the balance organs. Independently, this level regulates very few movements. They are mainly associated with vibration and tremor. For example, the chatter of teeth from the cold.

Level B - synergy level. At this level, signals are processed mainly from muscle-articular receptors, which report on the relative position and movement of body parts. This level is cut off from outer space, but is very well "aware" of what is being done in "body space". Level B takes a great part in the organization of movements of higher levels, and there it takes on the task of internal coordination of complex motor ensembles. The own movements of this level include sipping, facial expressions, etc.

Level C. Bernstein called this level level of spatial fields. This level receives signals from sight, hearing, touch, i.e. all information about the external space. Therefore, at this level, movements are built that are adapted to the spatial properties of objects - to their shape, position, length, weight, etc. Movements of this level include all displacement movements.

Level D - level of subject actions. This is the level of the cerebral cortex responsible for organizing actions with objects. This level includes all weapon actions and manipulations with objects. Movements at this level are presented as actions. They do not have a fixed motor composition, or a set of movements, but only a specific result.

Level E- highest level - level of intellectual motor acts. This level includes: speech movements, writing movements, movements of symbolic or coded speech. The movements of this level are determined not by the objective, but by the abstract, verbal meaning.

Considering the construction of movement levels, Bernstein draws several very important conclusions. Firstly, as a rule, several levels are involved in the organization of movements at once - the one on which the movement and all lower levels are built. So, for example, writing is a complex movement in which all five levels participate. Level A provides muscle tone. Level B gives movements a smooth roundness and provides cursive writing. Level C ensures the reproduction of the geometric shape of the letters, the even arrangement of lines on paper. Level D ensures proper grip on the pen. Level E determines the semantic side of the letter. Based on this position, Bernstein concludes that only those components of movement that are built on the leading level are represented in the human mind, and the work of the lower levels, as a rule, is not realized. Secondly, formally the same movement can be built on different leading levels. The level of construction of the movement is determined by the meaning, or task, of the movement. For example, a circular movement, depending on how and for what it is performed (movement of the fingers, movement of the body or action with an object), can be built on any of the five levels. This position is extremely interesting for us in that it shows the decisive importance of such a psychological category as the task, or goal, of movement for the organization and flow of physiological processes. This result of Bernstein's research can be regarded as a major scientific contribution to the physiology of movements.

2. Formation of motor skills.

2.1. The structure of motor skills.

The concept of N. A. Bershtein comes from a number of fundamental principles of learning. First, there are the principles of exercise. N. A. Bershtein noted that, while technical devices wear out from repeated performance of one or another action, living organisms are characterized by an improvement in each subsequent performance of an action compared to the previous one. Secondly, we are talking about the principle of "repetition without repetition", which consists in the fact that each new action is not a blind copy of the previous one, but its development. According to N. A. Bershtein, living movement is a constantly improving system, and therefore it cannot be described in mechanistic terms “stimulus-reaction”. Thirdly, N. A. Bershtein said that each new skill is a motor task that the body solves with the help of all available means, taking into account external and internal circumstances.

The essence of developing a skill is to discover the principle of solving a motor task. There are several stages in solving a motor problem.

At the first stage there is a division into the semantic structure and the motor composition of the action (What do I really want to do? How can I do it?). Example: the semantic structure can be the desire to swim, and the motor composition is the way to fulfill this idea (crawl or breaststroke).

At the second stage there is an identification and painting (“probing”) of sensory corrections. One of the significant services of N. A. Bershtein was that he abandoned the concept of "reflex arc", developed by Descartes, and switched to the concept reflex ring. The essence of this transition lies in the fact that a skill cannot be a stereotyped sequence of learned actions; throughout its entire duration, a constant reconciliation of the movement with the existing conditions is required. N. A. Bershtein called the constant coordinating information that our sensory apparatus receives in the course of developing a skill sensory corrections .

The difference between determining the motor composition and “probing” sensory corrections is that at the first stage, the student establishes how the movements that make up the skill look like from the position of the observer. And on the second, he tries to feel these movements from the inside. At this stage, the maximum number of repetitions is necessary, each of which will not be a mechanical resumption of movement, but its modification. Work with the skill is carried out here on a conscious level. A person tries to understand the movement and pick up ready-made motor automatisms from his personal repertoire of movements. Or maybe create new ones.

As N. A. Bershtein writes: “The secret of mastering the movement lies not in some special body movements, but in a special kind of sensations. They cannot be shown, but can only be experienced.

At this stage of skill formation, the problem of “transferring” the skill acquires a new meaning. Phenomenon skill transfer is that mastering the skill of performing one task can improve the results of performing another task.

At the third stage formation, the “layout of backgrounds” takes place, i.e. motor skill automation. The sensory corrections formed at the previous stage leave consciousness and begin to be performed automatically. Gradually, more and more of the skill becomes almost independent of consciousness.

task fourth stage is the triggering of background corrections. All components of the skill are integrated into a single whole.

Fifth stage This is the stage at which skill standardization occurs. The skill becomes stable, each new performance of it is more and more similar to the previous one.

And finally sixth stage This is the stabilization phase. The skill becomes resistant to interference, as if by itself.

The advantage of the concept of N. A. Bershtein over all the interpretations of learning described above is that here the skill is represented as a hierarchically organized system. The formation of a procedural memory system includes observation, insight, and the development of reactions. Only taken together all the "elements" of learning lead to the successful mastering of the skill.

2.2. The nature of skill and training.

All in vivo ontogenetically acquired motor abilities are generally designated by the term motor skills, while the processes of their intentional conscious development are united in the concept motor training. Such skills are acquired at each of the coordination levels, and each skill individually often represents a very complex, multi-level structure.

The formation of a motor skill is an active psychomotor activity at each stage. The whole dialectic of skill development consists in the fact that where there is development, where each next performance is better than the previous one, that is, it does not repeat it; therefore an exercise is in particular a repetition without repetition. The key to this seeming paradox is that a correctly performed exercise repeats over and over again not this or that means of solving a given motor task, but the process of solving this task, changing and improving the means from time to time.

For each motor act potentially accessible to a person, there is an adequate level of construction in his central nervous system, capable of realizing the main sensory corrections of this act, corresponding to its semantic essence. But the more complex the movement, the more numerous and varied the sensory corrections required for its execution. In this regard, as a given motor act is developed, a whole hierarchy of levels begins to take on in its execution. The highest of them for a given act, which takes over the implementation of the main semantic corrections, we designate as leading level for this movement. The subordinate lower levels, which ensure the implementation of auxiliary, technical corrections, we call background levels .

Motor backgrounds produced in vivo are usually referred to by the term "automatisms", and the process of their development itself - by the term "automation of a motor act". Both names are explained precisely by the fact that the background components of movements remain beyond the thresholds of consciousness. As soon as any group of coordination corrections switches from the leading level to the background one, which is the most adequate for it in terms of the quality and composition of its corrections, it leaves the field of consciousness and becomes automated.

Based on this brief schematized analysis, we can more clearly trace the physiological pathways of the development of a new motor skill in ontogeny.

At the very beginning of mastering a new movement, all corrections applied to it are made at its leading level. The exceptions are the most generalized lower corrections, which are the initial lining of almost any movement, developed already at the earliest stages of ontogenesis, as well as corrections that are accidentally available in finished form from previously mastered movements. Since no level is so universal as to have adequate corrections for all aspects of the movement, it is involuntarily at first that every movement is made clumsily, with the temporary assistance of more or less suitable corrections, which a given leading level is able to provide to this movement. The absence of automatisms causes a great overload of consciousness, forced to delve into every technical detail of the movement. In progress workout there is a gradual selection of background components, which are redirected by the leading level to one of the lower levels, in which there are prerequisites for the best implementation of these particular corrections.

As the corresponding background automatisms are developed at the lower levels, an increasing percentage of technical backgrounds leave the field of consciousness, thereby unloading the leading level and at the same time finding conditions for a much more accurate and perfect performance. From all of the above, it necessarily follows that each switching of one or another component of the movement from the leading level to the background is, firstly, a more or less sudden abrupt change in the process of movement, and secondly, an obligatory qualitative leap, since the initial corrections of this component are replaced by while being qualitatively different.

The process of sorting out the background components of the movement according to the corresponding levels is complicated, because it must be preceded by the definition and identification of these components.

In each motor act we must distinguish: 1 ) its semantic structure and 2) its motor composition. The semantic structure entirely follows from the essence of the motor task that has arisen and determines the leading level of construction, which this task is “up to”. The motor composition is determined not only by the task, but by its collision with the motor capabilities of the individual, the arrangement of the kinematic chains of this individual, the presence of one or another tool, the content of psychomotor experience accumulated by this time, etc. A person solves the problem of quickly transferring his body in space spint, horse-head, bird-flight; the task of fastening two rigid bodies, one solves by binding, the other by nailing together, the third by gluing, soldering, welding, etc .; The task of threading a needle is usually solved by men and women in exactly the opposite ways.

The essence of the automation process, which sometimes requires a long time and persistent exercise, lies precisely in the development of a central nervous system the plan of the layout of backgrounds described above: in determining the motor composition of the action; along the way, the very existence of this layout begins in the order indicated above.

3. Level approach in the analysis of the mechanisms of mental activity.

3.1. attention and activity.

The question of the nature of attention continues to be hotly debated today. One of the points of discussion is the old alternative: is attention an independent process, or is it a side, an aspect of any mental activity. In foreign cognitive psychology, this alternative is represented by supporters of the theory of attention as a special process of blocking, or filtering, information, which is provided by the work of a special unit, and supporters of the view that attention is a manifestation of the work of the entire information processing system.

In Soviet psychology, both answers are also clearly present: "attention is the direction and concentration of any activity" and "attention is a special activity of control." Both representations implement the so-called activity approach to attention. At the same time, as already noted, they are quite alternative. The second concept arose chronologically later and contains criticism of the first. However, in our opinion, it is capable of explaining a much smaller range of facts. Here we will try to defend the first concept indicated - the idea of ​​attention as an aspect of any activity, giving it, however, a slightly different formulation. We are led to turn to this topic by the belief that the potential of the psychological theory of activity in relation to understanding the nature of attention significantly exceeds the realizations that exist to date.

However, first we need to discuss the question of what is attention. This question has been raised again and again throughout the existence of scientific psychology. Different authors have given different answers, but even now there is no complete clarity and unanimity. In this situation, it is best to turn to the factual side of the matter and list those signs or criteria attention that are undeniable and recognized by most studies.

1. The first on chronological grounds, and in essence, should be named phenomenal criterion - clarity and distinctness contents of consciousness that are in the field of attention. For representatives of the psychology of consciousness, this criterion was the main and only one. However, its fundamental methodological shortcoming was very quickly revealed - the difficulty of using it in the interests of research attention. These difficulties turned out to be associated not only with the existence of subtle degrees of subjective clarity, but also with the transformation of the quality of clarity in the process of self-observation in general. As a result, the efforts of psychologists were directed to the search for more "tangible", objective criteria. And yet, despite the loss of the monopoly position of the phenomenal criterion, it still remains one of the most important and unconditional in describing the phenomena of attention.

2. The criterion is objective, which can be conditionally called "productive" criterion. It characterizes not so much the "process" itself or the state of attention as its result. This is an increased or improved quality of the product of an "attentive" action (perceptual, mental, motor) compared to an "inattentive" one. In the case of mental or perceptual activity, this product is of a cognitive nature: deeper understanding, more complete perception, etc. In the case of executive activity, we are talking about the quality of the external material result.

3. Next criterion - mnemonic, a criterion that is expressed in the memorization of the material that was in the field of attention. Although this criterion can also be attributed to the "productive" effects of attention, it is worth highlighting, if only because it is not a direct, but a by-product of any attentive action (unless we are talking about a special mnemonic action).

4. External reactions - motor , posnotonic, vegetative, providing conditions for better signal perception. These include: turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial expressions and posture of concentration, holding the breath, vegetative components of the orienting reaction, etc.

5. Finally, last but not least, selectivity criterion, which is essentially present, as it were, within each of the listed criteria: it is expressed in the delimitation of the field of clear consciousness from the periphery of consciousness; in the ability to actively perceive only part of the incoming information and do only one thing; in remembering only a part of the perceived impressions; in the installation of the sense organs and the response only to a limited range of external signals. Perhaps, in view of the indicated universality of this criterion, it is given in Lately special meaning, so that the terms "attention" and "selectivity" in many works began to be used as synonyms.

Consideration of the problem of attention in the history of experimental psychology shows that not only a fruitful study of this mental phenomenon, but also its very definition requires implementation. simultaneous multidimensional approach- approach from the side of consciousness, from the side of activity and from the side of physiological processes.

The method of multifaceted analysis of the psyche was successfully developed in the studies of A.N. Leontiev.

In the history of psychology, separate schools, trends and entire epochs are well known in which movement was carried out only in one of the named plans. Such, for example, are the "one-dimensional" directions in the psychology of consciousness and behavioral psychology, which quite quickly exhausted their explanatory and heuristic possibilities. The "two-plane" schemes proved to be much more stable and promising. In terms of consciousness - and physiology, W. Wundt began to work, and with the exception of the purely parallelistic Wundtian methodology, this direction turned out to be so promising that it gave rise to special related disciplines - psychophysiology, neuropsychology, etc. Significantly later and much closer to us were schemes that combine planes of consciousness - and activity, activity - and physiology. They arose and were significantly developed within the framework of domestic science and especially the psychology of the Soviet period.

The cornerstone position of Soviet Marxist psychology that consciousness is a derivative of being, human activity, was not only received in the works of A.N. Leontiev's general theoretical development, but was also used as a heuristic principle in the concrete psychological development of the problem of consciousness. If at the same time in separate studies A.N. Leontiev limited himself to the analysis of the connections between the two planes - consciousness and activity, then the whole style of his scientific thinking was characterized by a constant coverage of all three named planes. This was also reflected in how organically he managed to fit physiological processes into the categorical apparatus of the psychological theory of activity as implementers and means of activity; and in how much space he gave in his other works to the connections of the second dyad: activity - and physiological mechanisms; and, finally, in those high marks that he received from the works of other authors who deeply use the "activity" orientation in the study of physiological processes.

A brilliant example of this type of research is A.N. Leontiev considered the physiological concept of the levels of construction of movements by N.A. Bernstein. As you know, N.A. Bernstein owns the proof of the fundamental position that the task of movement, or its semantic side, determines the neurological level at which movement is built. This proposition, in its scientific importance, is commensurate with the regularity of the dependence of the plane of consciousness on the structure of activity. Here, in the main idea of ​​N.A. Bernstein, as well as in the indicated regularity, contains an indication of the direction of cause-and-effect relationships: from the task motor act, therefore, from the structure of activity, to neurological structures and physiological processes, and not vice versa. Instead of looking for an explanation of mental phenomena and processes through the analysis of physiological mechanisms, as is typical of traditional physiological thinking, this theory shows the need for a reverse move: the use of psychological, activity categories to understand physiological processes.

A.N. Leontiev not only highly appreciated the concept of N.A. Bernstein for this inner "psychologism" of hers; in joint work with A.V. Zaporozhets, he also made a personal contribution to the study and practical use for therapeutic purposes of the same activity-physiological relationships.

3.1. Perception.

It remains to say about one more damage suffered by physiology from the substitution of real motor acts, solving the objective problem that has arisen, with fragments of movements of an almost artifactual nature. This latter damage, hitherto not sufficiently emphasized, has greatly impoverished our knowledge of receptor physiology and at the same time contained the roots of important methodological errors.
In the role of a receiver of trigger signals, including the action of one or another reflex arc - the only role studied by physiologists of the classical direction, receptor systems, in highly organized animals and in humans, function significantly and qualitatively differently than in the role of tracking and corrective devices when performing a motor act. . This difference can be clarified if, once again taking the point of view of biological significance, attention is directed to those qualities that in both cases should have been sifted out by natural selection.
For the signal-triggering function, it is essential for the receptor to have high sensitivity, i.e., the lowest possible thresholds both in absolute signal strength and in discrimination between signals. At the forefront in terms of biological significance are telereceptors sense of smell, hearing (also ultrahearing) and vision in various ranking orders in different types animals. In order to isolate, further, significant signals from the chaotic background of "interference", it is necessary and necessary to develop a perfect analytical or analyzer the ability of the receiving apparatuses of the central nervous system (it is quite natural that I.P. Pavlov, who deepened our knowledge of the signal-triggering function of receptors to such a large extent, gave them the name analyzers, only in the most last years his life, supplemented by the prefix "synthesis").
For the same signal-launching role, the most important mechanism (which was already foreseen by I. M. Sechenov and was subsequently clearly experimentally revealed by researchers starting from the practical tasks of military surveillance) is a set of processes of active systematized search (scanning) or “scanning” of their range by each of telereceptors. These are entirely active processes, using effectorics in complete analogy with how the latter exploits afferentation in the control of movements, but, I note right away, they have nothing in common with the processes of attracting organized motor acts to a holistic active perception of objects of the external world, which will be discussed further.
When the motor semantic act is already “launched” by one or another sensory signal, the requirements imposed by biological expediency and led to the formation of the ring mechanism in phylogeny. sensory correction, are significantly different. Whatever the emerging motor task and the external object to which it is directed, for the correct, useful for the individual implementation of this task, it is necessary to have the most complete and objective perception of both this object and each next phase and detail of one’s own action aimed at solving this task.
The first of these features of the receptor in this role - completeness, or syntheticity - is provided by sensory syntheses (or sensory fields) well studied by both psychophysiologists and neurophysiologists. These include, for example, the scheme of one’s body, the spatial-motor field, syntheses of objective or “qualitative” (topological) space, etc. The author tried to describe in detail the role of these “fields” in the control of motor acts in a book on the construction of movements. It will suffice here only to recall: 1) that in this functional area the synthetic nature of the operation of receptor devices no longer appears declaratively (as was done above), but as a basic fact actually traced on movements in their norm and pathology, and 2) that in each of these sensory syntheses , providing procedural control of motor acts, the structural scheme of combining the activities of different proprio-, tango- and telereceptors has its own specific, qualitatively and quantitatively different properties. At the same time, the fusion of elementary information flowing to the central synthesizing apparatus from peripheral receptors is so deep and strong that it is usually almost inaccessible to dissection in self-observation. And all or almost all types of receptors take part in the described function (maybe only with the exception of taste), but in significantly different rank orders. In the foreground here is an extensive system of proprioceptors in the narrow sense. Further, it is overgrown with the complicity of the entire tango and telereceptors, organized on the basis of all the previous practical experience to fulfill the role of "functional proprioceptor". About other, still emerging features of the purely physiological originality of the work of receptors in the range of functions under discussion - adaptation parameters, thresholds "by comparison", periodicity of functioning, etc. - will be discussed in the second part of the essay.
The second of the above defining features of the receptor as a participant in the ring coordination process - objectivity - is of such fundamental importance that it is necessary to dwell on it in more detail.
In that signal (starting or inhibitory) role, which alone could be noticed when analyzing reflexes according to the scheme of an open arc and which led to the designation of the entire complex of organs of perception in the central nervous system by the term " signal system", the afferent function is not at all required to deliver objectively correct information. The reflex system will work correctly if each effector response is assigned its own unchanging and unmistakably recognizable trigger signal - code. The content of this code, or cipher, can be completely conditional, without interfering in the least with the functioning of the system, if only the two conditions just mentioned are met.

Completely different features characterize the work of the receptor system when it performs control and coordination functions in the course of the solved motor task. Here the degree objective fidelity information is a decisive prerequisite for the success or failure of the action. Throughout the phylogeny of animal organisms, natural selection inexorably caused the elimination of those individuals in which the receptors that served their motor activity worked like a crooked mirror. In the course of ontogenesis, each collision of an individual with the surrounding world, which poses a motor problem requiring a solution, contributes, sometimes at a very high price, to the development in its nervous system of an ever more true and accurate objective reflection external world both in the perception and comprehension of the situation inciting to action, and in the design and control over the implementation of an action that is adequate to this situation. Each semantic movement, on the one hand, necessarily requires not a conditional, coded, but an objective, quantitatively and qualitatively correct reflection of the surrounding world in the brain. On the other hand, it is itself an active tool for the correct knowledge of this surrounding world. The success or failure of the solution of each actively experienced motor task leads to progressive polishing and cross-checking of the indications of the above-mentioned sensory syntheses and their components, as well as to knowledge through action, verification through practice, which is the cornerstone of the entire dialectical materialist theory of knowledge.
For the transformation of any above-threshold agent into a conditioned triggering stimulus of one or another organic reflex, it is always necessary to ensure two conditions: 1) the main one - the meeting or combination within a usually small time interval of this agent with the realization of this reflex, and 2) a side one - a certain number of repetitions of such a combination. The first of these conditions directly relates the phenomenon under consideration to the cycle associations by adjacency, just characterized by indifference to the semantic content of the associated representations or receptions. It is interesting to note that in order to transform an indifferent stimulus into a conditional trigger, it is essential to combine it with effector, and not with the afferent part of the unconditioned reflex, which is mobilized in a typical experiment only as a means of making the effector semi-arc work. This is proved, for example, by the fact of the feasibility of the so-called second-order conditioned reflexes, when an indifferent stimulus acquires triggering properties for a given reflex, despite the fact that the effector part of the latter is launched into action not by an unconditioned, but by a first-order conditioned stimulus previously grafted onto the reflex.
Another proof of the foregoing can be seen in the fact that in the methods used in training, the reward reinforcement with the “unconditional” afferent impulse of feeding the animal is carried out after the animal correctly performs the required action on the corresponding conditional command and is not an unconditional starting stimulus of the trained action. This previously underestimated detail deserves attention in the present context because the formation of an associative connection in the brain between the conditioned afferent process and effector part of the reflex, it seems to us, can only be comprehended if this effector realization of the reflex is reflected (again through a circular feedback) back into the central nervous system and can already be combined associatively with the same afferent process of conditioned stimulation. This could serve as yet another confirmation that reciprocal afferent acts, as direct accomplices of the process and in classical reflexes - "arcs" - are not absent, but only elude observation for the time being.
The second of the conditions for the formation of a conditioned connection, called above secondary, namely, the need for a certain number of repeated combinations, it would be difficult to explain now otherwise than by the need for the experimental individual to distinguish the grafted new reception from all the chaos of influences bombarding it from outside. The number of repetitions should be sufficient to determine the non-random coincidence in time of the intero- or proprioception of the realized reflex with this particular element of the entire set of exteroceptions. In this sense, in relation to the necessary and sufficient number of repetitions, a stimulus that is indifferent in its semantic content may turn out to be relatively more difficult and longer to isolate as it may not attract the interest and attention (“orienting reaction”) of the individual. The old naive-materialistic concept of the gradual "breaking" of pathways or synaptic barriers in the central nervous system can already be considered as a science archive.

Conclusion.

In conclusion, I would like to say about the meaning of ideas. N. Bernstein for

psychology. It is large and multifaceted. Despite the general physiological orientation, N. A. Bernshtein made a great contribution to several branches of psychology. He enriched ideas about the functions of reception, highlighting a special function - control and correction (the function of sensitive feedback signals).

Of course, he made a revolution in the field of psychophysiology of movements: today not a single study of human movements is possible without deep knowledge and taking into account everything that was done by Bernstein in this area. Especially important for psychology is his idea of ​​the decisive role of the task in the organization of movements.

It is difficult to overestimate the contribution of N. A. Bernshtein to the problem of habit formation: he considered its physiological, psychological and pedagogical aspects in a new way.

The theory of levels by N. A. Bernshtein in its significance goes beyond the problem of the organization of movements. There are numerous attempts to apply the provisions of this theory to the processes of perception, attention, thinking, etc.

Finally, thanks to the work of N. A. Bernstein, psychology received evidence of the validity of the principle of activity "from below", that is, from the side of physiology.

In this work, the psychophysiological basis of the organization of movements was described (the principle of sensory corrections, the scheme of the reflex ring, the levels of movement construction). The mechanisms of skill formation were also considered. The main mechanisms of mental activity were identified, such as: perception and attention.

Bibliography.

1. Bernstein N.A. Biomechanics and physiology of movements: Selected psychological works / N. A. Bernshtein; Ed. V. P. Zinchenko.- 3rd ed., Sr. M.: publishing house MPSI; Voronezh. 2008.

2. Bernstein N.A. Urgent problems of regulation of motor acts // Reader on the course "Introduction to psychology" / Ed.- comp. E. E. Sokolova. –M., 1999.

3. . Bernstein N.A. Movement levels.

// Reader on the course "Introduction to Psychology" / Ed.- comp. E. E. Sokolova. –M., 1999.

4. Bernshtein N. A. The nature of skill and training.//Reader on the course "Psychology of memory"/ Ed. Gippenreiter Yu. B and Romanova V. Ya. M.: CheRo 2000.

5. Bershtein N. A. About dexterity and its development. - M., 1991.

6. Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. Course of lectures. - M .: CheRo, MPSI, Omega-L, 2006.

7. Gippenreiter Yu.B. and Romanov V. Ya. Activity and attention. – M.: CheRo, 2000.

8. Dormashev Yu. B, Romanov V. Ya. Psychology of attention. Textbook.-4th ed.-M.: MPSI. 2007.

9. Lyubimov VV Psychology of perception. Textbook.- M.: Eksimo, CheRo, Mpsi, 2007.

10. Leontiev A. N. Lectures on general psychology. - M., 2000.

11. Nurkova V.V. General psychology. In 7 volumes: a textbook for students. higher educational institutions / ed. B. S. Bratusya.- T.3. Memory.- M .: Ed. Center "Academy", 2006.

12. Sokolova E. E. General psychology: in 7 volumes, ed. B. S. Bratusya. Volume 1. Introduction to psychology: a textbook for students. higher textbook institutions. - 3rd ed., ster. - m.: Publishing house. Center "Academy", 2008.

The main provisions of the theory of N.A. Bernstein

At the heart of the scientific work of N.A. Bernstein is based on his new understanding of the vital activity of an organism, according to which it is considered not as a reactive system, passively adapting to environmental conditions (this is precisely what follows from the conditioned reflex theory), but as an active system created in the process of evolution, purposeful system. In other words, the process of life is not a simple “balancing with the external environment”, but an active overcoming of this environment.

The figure of this scientist is one of the most significant among brain researchers of the 20th century. His outstanding merit is that he was the first in world science to use the study of movements as a way of understanding the laws of the brain. According to N.A. Bernstein, for those who want to understand how the brain works, how the central nervous system (CNS) functions, there is hardly a more fertile object in nature than the study of motion control processes. If before him human movements were studied in order to describe them, then N.A. Bernstein began to study them in order to understand how they are managed.

In the process of studying these mechanisms, he discovered such fundamental phenomena in control as sensory corrections and the principle of hierarchical, level control, which underlie the operation of these mechanisms and without understanding which a correct understanding of the patterns of brain work in the process of controlling movements is impossible.

It should be emphasized that the discovery of these phenomena was of great importance for the development of many other areas of human knowledge. This was especially evident in relation to one of the brightest sciences of the 20th century - cybernetics. As you know, this area of ​​modern knowledge arose as a result of symbiosis (mutually beneficial coexistence) of such sciences as mathematics and physiology (its section "Higher nervous activity"). All cybernetic systems are based on the principle of feedback discovered by physiologists and successfully used by mathematicians. This name is nothing else than the modern and more common name for the principle of sensory corrections, which was first described by N.A. Bernstein back in 1928, i.e. 20 years before the creator of cybernetics Norbert Wiener did it.

In accordance with the theory of sensory corrections, in order to perform any movement, the brain not only sends a certain command to the muscles, but also receives signals from the peripheral senses about the results achieved and, based on them, gives new corrective commands. Thus, there is a process of building movements, in which there is not only direct, but also continuous feedback between the brain and the executive organs.

Further research led N.A. Bernstein to the hypothesis that to build movements of varying complexity, commands are given at different levels (hierarchical floors) of the nervous system. When automating movements, control functions are transferred to a lower (unconscious) level.

Another of the remarkable achievements of N.A. Bernstein is a phenomenon discovered by him, which he called "repetition without repetition." Its essence is as follows. When repeating the same movement (for example, walking or running steps), despite the same end result (same length, execution time, etc.), the path of the working limb and muscle tension are somewhat different. At the same time, repeated repetitions of such movements do not make these parameters the same. If correspondence occurs, it is not as a pattern, but as an accident. And this means that with each new execution, the nervous system does not repeat the same commands to the muscles, and each new repetition is performed in slightly different conditions. Therefore, to achieve the same result, not the same, but significantly different commands to the muscles are needed.

Based on these studies, the most important conclusion for learning movements was formulated: movement training does not consist in standardizing commands, not in “teaching commands”, but in learning each time to search for and transmit such a command, which, under the conditions of each specific repetition of the movement, will lead to the desired motor result.

Another important conclusion follows from all this: the movement is not stored ready in memory, as follows from the conditioned reflex theory (and, unfortunately, many still think), it is not retrieved in case of need from the storerooms of memory, but each time it is built anew in the process of the action itself, sensitively reacting to the changing situation. The memory stores not the stamps of the movements themselves, but the prescriptions (logarithms) for their construction, which are built on the basis of a mechanism not of stereotyped reproduction, but of an expedient adaptation.

The theory of N.A. Bernstein and for understanding the role of consciousness in the control of movements. In many teaching aids Until now, one can meet the statement that the penetration of consciousness into every detail of the movement helps to increase the speed and quality of its development. This is an oversimplified and largely erroneous statement. The inexpediency and even the fundamental impossibility of such a total control on the part of consciousness can be very figuratively and convincingly demonstrated in a number of examples. Let's take one of them.

To do this, let us consider how the activity of such an organ, exceptional in its complexity, accuracy, mobility and vital importance, which is the human visual apparatus, is ensured.

Its motor activity is provided by 24 muscles working in pairs. All these muscles carry out their work in the finest mutual coordination from early morning until late evening, completely unconsciously and for the most part involuntarily. It is easy to imagine that if the control of these two dozen muscles, which carry out all kinds of coordination of eye turns, control of the lens, dilation and contraction of the pupils, focusing the eyes, etc., required voluntary attention, then this would require so much work that would deprive a person of the possibility of arbitrary control of other organs of the body.

Movement Building Levels

Before proceeding to a direct consideration of the mechanisms underlying the development of movements from the position of the theory of N.A. Bernstein, it is necessary, at least in the most general and brief form, to get acquainted with what the levels of construction of movements are, which was the basis for their formation and progressive development.

Throughout the long millennia of the evolution of the animal world, such a fundamental and main reason for development has been the vital need for movement, ever-complicating motor activity. their place on the planet.

This process of continuous motor adaptation was accompanied by anatomical complication of those central nervous structures that were supposed to control new types of movements and which, for this, were overgrown with new control apparatuses, more and more powerful and perfect, more adapted to solving ever more complex motor tasks. These newly emerging younger devices did not deny or eliminate the older ones, but only headed them, thanks to which new, more advanced and efficient formations were formed.

Each of these successively emerging new brain devices brought with it a new list of movements, more precisely, a new range of motor tasks feasible for a given animal species. Consequently, the emergence of each next new brain superstructure marked a biological response to a new quality or new class motor tasks.

This is also convincing evidence that it is motor activity, its complication and diversity that have been the main reason for the development and improvement of the functions of the brain and the nervous system as a whole for thousands of years. As a result of this development, the human coordinating-motor device of the central nervous system was formed, which is the structure of the highest complexity and perfection, surpassing all other similar systems in any living beings. This structure consists of several levels of motion control of different ages (in evolutionary terms), each of which is characterized by its own special brain anatomical formations and a special, characteristic only for him, composition of the sensitivity on which he relies in his activity, from which he forms his sensory corrections. (own sensory field).

Gradually increasing, the complexity of motor tasks became such that even the youngest and most advanced level could not cope with their solution by itself. As a result, the leading younger level had to attract assistants from among the lower, older levels, passing on to them an increasing number of auxiliary corrections that ensure smoothness, speed, economy, accuracy of movements, better equipped specifically for these types of corrections. Such levels and their sensory corrections are called background. A the level that retains the supreme control of a motor act, its most important semantic corrections, is called leading.

Thus, the physiological level of building movements is a set of phenomena that mutually determine each other, such as: a) a special class of motor tasks; b) the corresponding type of corrections; c) a certain brain level and (as a result of all the previous ones) d) a certain class (list) of movements.

Currently, a person has five levels of building movements, which are denoted by the letters A, B, C, D and E and have the following names:

A - the level of tone and posture; B is the level of synergy (coordinated muscle contractions); C is the level of the spatial field; D - the level of subject actions (semantic chains); E - a group of higher cortical levels of symbolic coordination (writing, speech, etc.).

Each of these levels corresponds to certain anatomical formations in the CNS and sensory corrections characteristic only of it.

The relative degree of development of individual coordination levels in different people can be different. Therefore, one or another degree of development and trainability is characteristic not of individual movements, but of entire contingents of movements that are controlled by one or another level.

Thus, the whole variety of human motor activity represents several separate layers, differing in origin, meaning and many physiological properties. The quality of motion control is ensured by the coordinated, synchronous activity of the leading and background levels. At the same time, the leading level provides the manifestation of such characteristics as switchability, maneuverability, resourcefulness, and the background levels are coherence, plasticity, obedience, accuracy.

A significant contribution to understanding the formation of motor skills in the learning process was made by the theoretical studies of N.A. Bernstein. He proved: under the influence of motor actions, the body becomes stronger, more resilient, more dexterous, more skillful. This property of the body is called exercise capacity. Repetitions of motional exercises are needed in order to solve the set motional task over and over again, each time more successfully, and thereby best ways her decisions. Repeated solutions to this problem are also needed because, under natural conditions, external circumstances are not exactly the same, just as the process of solving a motor problem itself is not repeated twice in a row in the same way. Any repetition of movement, according to N.A. Bernstein, "there is repetition without repetition." The child needs to gain experience in the diversely modified motor task set before him, and its external environment, and, above all, in the whole variety of those impressions with the help of which sensory corrections of this movement are made. This is necessary in order to adapt even to a slight and unexpected change in the situation or the motor task itself.

The nervous system plays an important role in the development of motor skills. To develop a motor skill, the brain needs quite a long exercise.

Due to the huge excess of degrees of freedom of movement of the child, no motor impulses to the muscles, no matter how accurate they may be, cannot by themselves provide the correct movement according to his desire. Changing the conditions for performing a movement is possible only when the sensory correction mechanism is turned on. To experience all the sensations that will form the basis of the studied movement, and to prepare the basis for sensory correction, it is necessary to repeatedly repeat the motor action.

Building a skill is a semantic chain action in which you cannot skip a single link. The formation of a motor skill is under the control of the nervous system and is represented in it by a multilevel motor action control system. Any motor act can be built only thanks to a strict hierarchy of brain levels. There are five levels in total: "A", "B", "C", "D", "E". Each of the levels has its own attendant brigade of sense organs (efferents).

Level one-"A": "You are in good shape". Level "A" - the very first and lowest. The activity of each level is associated with certain parts of the nervous system. For level "A" - this is part of the spinal cord, the lowest parts of the cerebellum and all the nerve centers located there - the nuclei. Level "A" regulates muscle tone (the readiness of the muscles and nerves that supply them to receive and effectively execute the command-impulse from the center), which is important for the formation of body support. At this level, involuntary actions of trembling movements are carried out - shivering from cold or with an increase in temperature; nervous trembling from excitement or startle from sudden harsh sound, beam of light, etc.

Level "A" manages the construction of some arbitrary actions: vibrational-rhythmic actions (for example, fanning with a fan); adopting and maintaining a certain posture, including the posture of the child. With a beautiful posture - the head is raised, the body is straightened, the movements are free. Adjustment of plastic muscle tone, carried out by level "A", largely depends on the neck-tonic reflex (position of the head and neck).

Level two-"V": movement - stamp. This is the level of friendly movements and standard stamps. He is very important, as he manages the "locomotor" mechanism, equipped with four moving limbs. Anatomically, level "B" is provided by the largest subcortical nuclei. This level processes and sends to the brain information about the size of the articular angles, about the speed of movement in the joints, about the strength and direction of pressure on the muscles and deep tissues of the limbs of the body.

Level "B" ensures the accuracy of reproduction of the movement. A rhythmic, swinging movement, for example, the movement of a hand when walking, exactly repeats the previous one, as a result, the same actions are stamped. Therefore, level "B" is called the level of stamps, the movements repeated at this level are so accurate.

Level "B" determines the three most important qualities necessary for building movements:

1) involvement in the work of dozens of muscles that carry out movement;

2) the ability to move harmoniously and smoothly in time;

3) following from the previous one - the ability to chase the repeatability of movements not only in time, but also in the pattern of action.

A person needs to "stamp" movements, otherwise all the huge wealth of muscle actions would come into a chaotic, controlled state. Stamp movements are also necessary because they are carried out without the participation of consciousness, thereby freeing the brain systems for a variety of activities.

Level "B" independently manages a few actions that are not related to the surrounding space. He receives mainly information about the actions of his own body: this is an involuntary sipping movement after sleep, motor manifestations of emotions, including grimaces on the face (by facial expression, some movements of the body, arms, shoulders, you can determine the emotional state of the child), inclinations, bends bodies, wave-like rhythmic movements, including some dance ones.

Since the “B” level is not connected with the vestibular system (balance organs, cerebellum) and has weak connections with vision and smell, it readily takes on all the internal, “rough” study of a complex movement carried out in the depths of the human body. He, as it were, conducts internal coordination preparation of walking, running, formalizing all the actions of this multitude of friendly movements: he prepares the pattern of walking, the basis of the movement of arms and legs, without which movement on any plane - smooth or uneven - will be impossible. But this is done in an abstract form, outside a specific situation, although our walking takes place somewhere, on some surface, past some obstacles, along bumps, steps, turns, etc. however, these circumstances are not available to level "B". They die while walking and overcome the next level - level "C".

Level three-"C": man and space. This level of N.A. Bernstein called the level of the spatial field and considered it one of the most responsible in the construction of movements. Unlike the previous levels, the level "C" has a number of important distinguishing features.

First, it is connected with the outside world. The closest relationship with him is the most important quality of the "C" level.

Secondly, telereceptors are already working at the “C” level, and first of all, vision, which unlimitedly expands and increases the volume and quality of information entering the body.

The third feature of a spatial field is its immovability. Thanks to qualitatively processed information, which reflects past experience (and the baby acquires it already in the cradle), the child perceives the immobility of the world around him. Movements performed under the guidance of level "C" do not contain elements of repetition or alternation.

Another important property of a spatial field is its metricity and geometricity. A careful assessment of the distances, sizes and shapes of objects determines the most important quality of such actions of the child as accuracy, without which his inaccurate actions would not reach the goal.

Thanks to these qualities, level "C" directs the most important movements of the human body. These movements always "lead from somewhere, somewhere and for some reason." They “carry, crush, pull, take, tear, throw. They have a beginning and an end, an attack and an achievement, a swing and a throw”, i.e. the movements of this level are displaceable in nature and necessarily adapt to the space in which they occur. This quality is one of the most important for the movements of this level, which is why it is called "spatial".

ON THE. Bernstein notes that the previous level "B" (lying below) constructs walking - the most complex motor act, in which dozens of muscles and joints take part. But this walking remains an abstract, as it were, “exhibition” model, with which one can get acquainted and even admire it. But walking will become an expedient action only after level “C” is included in its implementation. Then the foot walking on the ground will “take into account” and adapt to all the bumps and difficulties of the road, determine optimal length step and frequency of movements that will be most economical for a pedestrian. If it is stair walking, then the foot will step on the edge or the middle of the step, and the stride length will adjust exactly to the distance between the two steps. If the steps turn out to be uneven, chipped, then the leg will “try” to bypass these irregularities or adapt to them with the least damage to the walking person.

Level "C" is characterized by the ability to vary actions without compromising the accuracy of movement. In this case, the final result is necessarily achieved. This level is also characterized by the variability and interchangeability of motor components, as well as the switchability of movement from one organ to another (thus, having learned to write with the right hand, the child, if necessary, transfers this skill to the left hand).

At the same time, the methods of movement themselves can also switch: a child can walk, run, crawl, jump on one or two legs to a dressed object.

Level "C" has another very important quality: the ability to modify movements, i.e. the child's search for new ways and opportunities in the implementation of unfamiliar actions. This swing is indispensable in the learning process, in the process of creating a new motor skill, a new skill.

What independent movements are carried out at level C? Their number is so great that it is impossible to enumerate. ON THE. Bernstein singles out only the main groups of these; movements:

1) movement, movement of the whole body in space - walking, running, climbing, crawling, swimming, walking on a tightrope, skiing, skating, cycling, rowing, jumping up, in length, in depth, horse riding;

2) "non-locomotor" movements of the whole body in space - various exercises on gymnastic equipment, acrobatics;

3) movements - manipulation with space - individual parts of the body, most often hands: touches, indicating gestures;

4) moving things in space - grasping, catching a moving object, shifting it, transferring, winding, lifting weights, etc.;

5) all ballistic movements - throwing, playing tennis and gorodki;

6) aiming movements - adjusting and expectant movements of the goalkeeper in football and hockey;

7) imitative and copying movements - drawing, depicting an object or actions with gestures, i.e. pictorial pantomime.

Level "C" plays important role in sports, acrobatic types of movements. There are few labor movements in it that require the division of actions. Labor actions are performed at higher levels "D" and "E". Thus, level "C" is a link between actions, movements and the space in which the child lives and acts.

Level four-"D": regulates actions that are unique to man. These actions are provided by the region of the cerebral hemispheres.

The complexity of the "D" level is so great, and knowledge about it is so small that it is not possible to find out all the functions of the level so far. In performing movements of level "D", the main thing is the semantic side of the action with the object.

The sense organs (sight, touch, etc.) receive and transmit to the brain all the information about an object and help determine what exactly and in what sequence can and should be done with this object. It is important that the “D” level is not evaluated by its size, weight, color, but by its topology - a diagram that explains the quality; ratio of individual parts of the subject.

The principle of topology applies not only to the objects themselves, but also to actions performed at the “D” level. Their implementation takes place according to a single scheme (remove, tie, etc., although the implementation of these actions involves many ways). Meaner; important is not only the order of each of the elements of the action, but the specific time spent on a separate operation. The resulting chain process provides a semantic action, for example: put on and fasten a coat, lubricate skis; ointment, etc.

It is the level "D" that ensures not just the movement of an object, but its semantic use in order to change the surrounding reality, to bring it as close as possible to the model of the "desired future" that the child creates mentally before the start of each action.

A distinctive quality of all actions of this level is their high automatism, i.e. they are performed without active mind control, which, of course, is only possible after repeated exercises and training.

Another important feature of this level is related to the difference in the actions of the right and left hands. At all the levels already listed, this difference was almost imperceptible. And during: walking, and when grasping any object, both hands act in the same way, and the left hand easily replaces the right.

And only at the level of semantic actions ("D") this difference becomes decisive: the letter is written with the right hand, the spoon is pulled into the mouth with the right hand. It is possible to retrain to work with the left hand, but it is very, very difficult and certainly not fast (for a left-handed person, on the contrary).

Now we list the main groups of actions defined by such a high level:

The first group combines movements with a small number of automatic actions: feeling, comparing and choosing an object, any semantic actions of the child;

The second group contains actions that are significantly reinforced by the “C” level, semantic actions taking place in space; actions involving level "B"; manual dexterity exercises;

The third group combines the actions of all previous groups, first of all, this is writing and speech - the movement of the lips and tongue.

Finally, the predominance of the "D" level is manifested during the movement of the massage and self-massage. Thus, there are no such meaningful actions that would not be led by the “D” level.

Level five-"E" which is even higher than the previous one, creates a motive for a motor act and carries out its main semantic correction. He finally brings the result of the movement in line with the intention, with the very model that the child created mentally before the start of his action. This level, in addition to speech and writing, manages the richest arsenal of choreographic, improvisational and other improvisational actions, the study and description of which has not yet been fully disclosed, but represents a fascinating area of ​​research. Understanding the multi-level system of regulation of movements allows not only to form, but also to correct motor skills, identify disorders and diseases of the brain, which leads to the solution of the most important task of improving the child's health.

However, motion control is rarely represented by any level. Most often, 3-4 levels are involved in the motor action.

Ultimately, the theory of movement construction levels can be represented as follows:

level "A" - the lowest and phylogenetically very important;

· "B" - the level of synergy (extra movements). It processes signals from muscle-articular receptors that report on the relative position and movement of body parts. He participates in the organization of movements of a higher level: facial expressions, stretching, rhythm, etc.;

· "C" - the level of the spatial field. He is responsible for moving movements: walking, running, climbing, etc.;

· "D" - the level of substantive actions. This is the cerebral-cortical level, which manages the organization of actions with objects; being a monopoly human level, it reflects as much movement as action;

· "E" - the level of intellectual motor actions.

Every movement of a child is unique. It carries the realization of new and new potential motor abilities, reflecting at the same time a new level of their adaptive reactions. “The dialectic of the development of a skill lies precisely in the fact that where there is development, there, therefore, each subsequent performance is better than the previous one, i.e. does not repeat it ... ".

From this follows the practical formulation of the question: "How to teach children the correct movement, if the method of repeated repetition of exercises is unacceptable here?" We find the answer to this question in the works of N.A. Bernstein, who believed that the essence of mastering skills is not in “repetition and not in the trotting of a movement”, but in the improvement of a multi-level system for building movements. “A correctly conducted exercise repeats over and over again not the means used to solve a given motor task, but the process of solving this task, changing and improving the means from time to time.”

The formation of a flexible skill is significantly influenced by the natural conditions for its implementation by children in everyday activities, in organized forms. motor activity. At the same time, the conditions for performing a movement are never the same, as well as the process of solving motor tasks. The functional, neuropsychic state of the child at each moment of the movement is also different.

The formation of a motor skill is a process of creating a dynamic stereotype during the interaction of the first and second signal systems with the predominant value of the second signal nervous system.

The development of motor skills in a child great value. They provide him with the opportunity to perform movements with the least expenditure of energy and with the greatest effect, ensure the rational use of his motor abilities.

The main provisions of the theory of N.A. Bernstein

At the heart of the scientific work of N.A. Bernstein is based on his new understanding of the vital activity of an organism, according to which it is considered not as a reactive system, passively adapting to environmental conditions (this is precisely what follows from the conditioned reflex theory), but as an active system created in the process of evolution, purposeful system. In other words, the process of life is not a simple “balancing with the external environment”, but an active overcoming of this environment.

The figure of this scientist is one of the most significant among brain researchers of the 20th century. His outstanding merit is that he was the first in world science to use the study of movements as a way of understanding the laws of the brain. According to N.A. Bernstein, for those who want to understand how the brain works, how the central nervous system (CNS) functions, there is hardly a more fertile object in nature than the study of motion control processes. If before him human movements were studied in order to describe them, then N.A. Bernstein began to study them in order to understand how they are managed.

In the process of studying these mechanisms, he discovered such fundamental phenomena in control as sensory corrections and the principle of hierarchical, level control, which underlie the operation of these mechanisms and without understanding which a correct understanding of the patterns of brain work in the process of controlling movements is impossible.

It should be emphasized that the discovery of these phenomena was of great importance for the development of many other areas of human knowledge. This was especially evident in relation to one of the brightest sciences of the 20th century - cybernetics. As you know, this area of ​​modern knowledge arose as a result of symbiosis (mutually beneficial coexistence) of such sciences as mathematics and physiology (its section "Higher nervous activity"). All cybernetic systems are based on the principle of feedback discovered by physiologists and successfully used by mathematicians. This name is nothing else than the modern and more common name for the principle of sensory corrections, which was first described by N.A. Bernstein back in 1928, i.e. 20 years before the creator of cybernetics Norbert Wiener did it.

In accordance with the theory of sensory corrections, in order to perform any movement, the brain not only sends a certain command to the muscles, but also receives signals from the peripheral senses about the results achieved and, based on them, gives new corrective commands. Thus, there is a process of building movements, in which there is not only direct, but also continuous feedback between the brain and the executive organs.

Further research led N.A. Bernstein to the hypothesis that to build movements of varying complexity, commands are given at different levels (hierarchical floors) of the nervous system. When automating movements, control functions are transferred to a lower (unconscious) level.

Another of the remarkable achievements of N.A. Bernstein is a phenomenon discovered by him, which he called "repetition without repetition." Its essence is as follows. When repeating the same movement (for example, walking or running steps), despite the same end result (same length, execution time, etc.), the path of the working limb and muscle tension are somewhat different. At the same time, repeated repetitions of such movements do not make these parameters the same. If correspondence occurs, it is not as a pattern, but as an accident. And this means that with each new execution, the nervous system does not repeat the same commands to the muscles, and each new repetition is performed in slightly different conditions. Therefore, to achieve the same result, not the same, but significantly different commands to the muscles are needed.

Based on these studies, the most important conclusion for learning movements was formulated: movement training does not consist in standardizing commands, not in “teaching commands”, but in learning each time to search for and transmit such a command, which, under the conditions of each specific repetition of the movement, will lead to the desired motor result.

Another important conclusion follows from all this: the movement is not stored ready in memory, as follows from the conditioned reflex theory (and, unfortunately, many still think), it is not retrieved in case of need from the storerooms of memory, but each time it is built anew in the process of the action itself, sensitively reacting to the changing situation. The memory stores not the stamps of the movements themselves, but the prescriptions (logarithms) for their construction, which are built on the basis of a mechanism not of stereotyped reproduction, but of an expedient adaptation.

The theory of N.A. Bernstein and for understanding the role of consciousness in the control of movements. In many textbooks, one can still find the statement that the penetration of consciousness into every detail of the movement helps to increase the speed and quality of its development. This is an oversimplified and largely erroneous statement. The inexpediency and even the fundamental impossibility of such a total control on the part of consciousness can be very figuratively and convincingly demonstrated in a number of examples. Let's take one of them.

To do this, let us consider how the activity of such an organ, exceptional in its complexity, accuracy, mobility and vital importance, which is the human visual apparatus, is ensured.

Its motor activity is provided by 24 muscles working in pairs. All these muscles carry out their work in the finest mutual coordination from early morning until late evening, completely unconsciously and for the most part involuntarily. It is easy to imagine that if the control of these two dozen muscles, which carry out all kinds of coordination of eye turns, control of the lens, dilation and contraction of the pupils, focusing the eyes, etc., required voluntary attention, then this would require so much work that would deprive a person of the possibility of arbitrary control of other organs of the body.

Movement Building Levels

Before proceeding to a direct consideration of the mechanisms underlying the development of movements from the position of the theory of N.A. Bernstein, it is necessary, at least in the most general and brief form, to get acquainted with what the levels of construction of movements are, which was the basis for their formation and progressive development.

Throughout the long millennia of the evolution of the animal world, such a fundamental and main reason for development has been the vital need for movement, ever-complicating motor activity. their place on the planet.

This process of continuous motor adaptation was accompanied by anatomical complication of those central nervous structures that were supposed to control new types of movements and which, for this, were overgrown with new control apparatuses, more and more powerful and perfect, more adapted to solving ever more complex motor tasks. These newly emerging younger devices did not deny or eliminate the older ones, but only headed them, thanks to which new, more advanced and efficient formations were formed.

Each of these successively emerging new brain devices brought with it a new list of movements, more precisely, a new range of motor tasks feasible for a given animal species. Consequently, the emergence of each next new brain superstructure marked a biological response to a new quality or a new class of motor tasks.

This is also convincing evidence that it is motor activity, its complication and diversity that have been the main reason for the development and improvement of the functions of the brain and the nervous system as a whole for thousands of years. As a result of this development, the human coordinating-motor device of the central nervous system was formed, which is the structure of the highest complexity and perfection, surpassing all other similar systems in any living beings. This structure consists of several levels of motion control of different ages (in evolutionary terms), each of which is characterized by its own special brain anatomical formations and a special, characteristic only for him, composition of the sensitivity on which he relies in his activity, from which he forms his sensory corrections. (own sensory field).

Gradually increasing, the complexity of motor tasks became such that even the youngest and most advanced level could not cope with their solution by itself. As a result, the leading younger level had to attract assistants from among the lower, older levels, passing on to them an increasing number of auxiliary corrections that ensure smoothness, speed, economy, accuracy of movements, better equipped specifically for these types of corrections. Such levels and their sensory corrections are called background. A the level that retains the supreme control of a motor act, its most important semantic corrections, is called leading.

Thus, the physiological level of construction of movements is a set of phenomena that mutually determine each other, such as: a) a special class of motor tasks; b) the corresponding type of corrections; c) a certain brain level and (as a result of all the previous ones) d) a certain class (list) of movements.

Currently, a person has five levels of building movements, which are denoted by the letters A, B, C, D and E and have the following names:

A - level of tone and posture;
B - level of synergy (coordinated muscle contractions);
C - level of the spatial field;
D - the level of subject actions (semantic chains);
E - a group of higher cortical levels of symbolic coordination (writing, speech, etc.).

Each of these levels corresponds to certain anatomical formations in the CNS and sensory corrections characteristic only of it.

The relative degree of development of individual coordination levels in different people can be different. Therefore, one or another degree of development and trainability is characteristic not of individual movements, but of entire contingents of movements that are controlled by one or another level.

Thus, the whole variety of human motor activity represents several separate layers, differing in origin, meaning and many physiological properties. The quality of motion control is ensured by the coordinated, synchronous activity of the leading and background levels. At the same time, the leading level provides the manifestation of such characteristics as switchability, maneuverability, resourcefulness, and background levels - coherence, plasticity, obedience, accuracy.

The main difficulties of motion control

In order to understand the need for all that complex, multi-level control system that is presented above, it is necessary to have a clear idea of ​​​​the difficulties that the nervous system has to overcome in the process of controlling movements. These difficulties are due to the following reasons:

the extraordinary richness of the mobility of the locomotor apparatus of the human body, requiring the distribution of attention among dozens and hundreds of types of mobility in order to harmonize them with each other;

the need to limit the huge excess of degrees of freedom with which human body;

elastic compliance of muscular rods, which cannot transmit movement as precisely and strictly as hard levers of machines or a rigid tug;

many external forces (inertia, friction, reactive, etc.) arising in the process of movement, the direction and intensity of which is difficult (and often impossible) to predict.

In his Everyday life a person does not at all think about the existence of these difficulties, easily performing many complex motor actions. At the same time, each of these difficulties taken separately is enough to make the task of creating an artificial mechanism, at least remotely comparable in its controllability with the human body, impossible.

Many of the most complex physiological devices of a healthy organism are simply not noticed by a person until there are cases when this device suddenly fails. Only then is it revealed how important it is in the norm and what huge violations are caused by its disorder. This happens, for example, in cases of violation of the sensitive pathways of the spinal cord, through which sensations are transmitted from the articular-muscular apparatus (reverse afferentation) in diseases of the dorsal tabes, or tabes. At the same time, the ability to feel the position of one or another part of the body is lost (in everyday life, this can happen if you sit or lie down your arm or leg). In patients, the coordination of movements is completely disrupted, although the muscles themselves still, in principle, retain their functions: they either cannot walk at all, or move with difficulty relying on two crutches with mandatory visual control of movements.

What a huge distribution of attention would be required if all the elements of a complex movement, such as walking, running, throwing, for example, had to be controlled consciously, paying attention to each of them! This difficulty alone can make the movement uncontrollable.

However, it looks quite insignificant compared to the other, which is associated with the extraordinary mobility of the human body. The mobility of the kinematic chains of the human body is enormous and amounts to tens of degrees of freedom. Thus, the mobility of the wrist relative to the scapula has 7 degrees of freedom, and the mobility of the fingertips relative to the chest - 16. For comparison, it should be noted that the vast majority of machines operating without continuous human control, for all their seeming complexity, have only one degree of freedom, i.e. e. what is called forced movement.

Two degrees of freedom are rare. The transition from one degree of freedom to two means a huge qualitative leap. Two degrees mean that the moving point gets the freedom to choose any of the infinite set of available trajectories of motion. One of the rare examples in technology is the automatic control of a sea vessel, which is a combination of a powerful and accurate compass and transmission to the machines that control the steering wheel. Thanks to this device, a ship that has two degrees of freedom on the sea surface (that is, the ability to move in any direction) is automatically guided along one completely defined path. This example shows that the choice of the path under such conditions can only take place on the basis of constant control over the course of movement by the vigilant sense organ, the role of which in this case is played by the compass.

Three degrees of freedom mean for a real point absolute freedom of movement within some section of space, the boundaries of which it is able to reach. For example, a fluff fluttering freely in the air has three degrees of freedom.

Thus, difficulty number one, which is created by the need to distribute attention between many movable hinges (joints), is not so significant compared to difficulty number two - the need to overcome the exorbitant excess of degrees of freedom with which the human body is saturated.

Coordination - this is the overcoming of excessive degrees of freedom of the organs of movement, their transformation into controlled systems.

Another difficulty control is related to the characteristics of muscle traction. Muscles are the only means that our body has to do work, i.e. active body movements. They are a kind of elastic bundles with which the moving parts of the body are equipped from all sides.

The control of movements by means of elastic rods presents very great difficulties, because the motor result here depends not only on how the rods themselves behave, but also on many other, secondary and uncontrollable reasons, among which the leading role is played by the action of all kinds of external forces already mentioned. .

How does the body manage to cope with such a variety of, at first glance, insoluble difficulties, and even so that a person does not even notice them, and often does not even know about their existence? Having unlimited possibilities in terms of mobility, the human body can only be controlled if each of the degrees of freedom is “restrained” by a certain type of sensitivity, which will lead to its continuous monitoring and adjustment.

Therefore, the saving principle that ensures the controllability of the human musculoskeletal apparatus was the principle of controlling movement with the help of sensitive (afferent) signaling, continuously coming from the sense organs, and making continuous corrections on its basis at each moment of movement. This principle is named by N.A. Bernstein the principle of sensory corrections("sensory" in Latin - "based on sensitivity"). At the same time, musculo-articular (proprioceptive) sensitivity is predominant. "Proprioceptive" ("self-perceiving") is the sensitivity of one's own body. All other types of sensitivity (sight, hearing, touch, etc.) in various cases, to a greater or lesser extent, act only as assistants to proprioceptive sensitivity.

Having found such an effective principle for overcoming all kinds of difficulties of management, nature later took care of the formation and improvement of the nervous structures and mechanisms that ensure its implementation. As a result, we got the structure of the nervous system, which provides both the control of already mastered movements and the process of forming new motor actions.

Formation of movements in children and adolescents

The natural motor abilities of a growing organism are determined by the process of maturation and improvement of the functions of the motor structures of the central nervous system. The formation of all parts of the brain responsible for movement, and the nerve pathways that conduct them, ends by the age of 2. Further, a long work begins to improve their functions, to adjust to each other all levels of building movements, the most significant features of which occur between 2 and 14 years - the age of final maturation.

The age of 3 years is the time when the child finally ceases to be a “supreme monkey” and for the first time masters such motor actions that are completely inaccessible to a monkey. At the same age, the disparity between the right and left sides of the body begins to show up.

The age from 3 to 7 years is a period of predominantly quantitative amplification and accumulation of all levels of movement construction, which begin to be filled with their own content. Children of this age are no longer dumb - they are graceful and mobile.

The next period is the age of 7-10 years. The set of motor skills of children is replenished with two more - strength and accuracy . This is the age at which life practice very sensitively caught the need for accustoming to work skills. This is the period of transition to a working state of the pyramidal motor system of the child. At this time, small and precise movements are formed, and the child already has something to do while sitting at the table. Boys improve throwing and percussion movements.

After 10-11 years comes difficult period"breaking", covering all aspects of the life of a growing organism, up to 14-15 years of age. Therefore, this period of development is very difficult to characterize. Harmony and agreement, achieved by this time between the individual levels of the construction of movements, are again, as it were, violated. They reflect huge shifts in the activity of the endocrine glands, the entire complex chemistry of the pubertal period (puberty).

Such a restructuring of the entire metabolism is regarded as a shock construction, to which many other things are sacrificed. One of the consequences is clumsiness, a temporary decrease in dexterity, and sometimes strength. These disorders are in no way connected with any disorders in the motor systems of the brain themselves. Therefore, it is necessary to calmly continue to work on filling the levels with their own content, i.e. try to expand your motor experience by mastering new and varied movements. Such systematic work will very soon have a beneficial effect both on the motor manifestations themselves and on the spiritual, emotional and social aspects of the life of a growing person.

Formation of a motor skill

The correct and effective execution of any movement is possible only due to the harmonious interaction of several levels of movement construction. Such interaction does not occur immediately, by itself. It takes a lot of work to build it. This work is what is called an exercise, as a result of which the formation of motor skills and abilities takes place.

This process, in essence, is a changing character of motion control, outwardly expressed in an unequal degree of mastery of a motor action.

Motor skill - this is such a degree of mastery of the technique of action, when control is carried out with the leading role of consciousness, and the action itself is characterized by an unstable way of solving a motor task.

Already from this definition it is clear that the most characteristic feature of a motor skill is that the control of movements occurs with the leading role of consciousness. Other characteristic features of motor skills are:

lack of stability, constant search for ways to best solve a motor problem;

low speed;

low strength, instability to knocking factors;

the inability to switch attention to the objects of the environment.

The initial ability to perform a motor action arises on the basis of the following factors:

already existing motor experience, previously developed coordinations, sensations and perceptions;

the state of general physical fitness;

knowledge of the technique of action and the features of its implementation;

conscious attempts to build some new system of movements for themselves.

Despite these shortcomings, motor skills are of great importance in the process of mastering movements, which is as follows:

the basis of motor skills is the creative search for ways to perform movements, which carries great educational opportunities;

motor skills are of great cognitive value, because they teach to analyze the essence of motor tasks, the conditions for their solution, to control their own mental and motor activity;

motor skills are the level of mastery of motor action, which is typical for all lead-up exercises;

motor skill is the first level of mastery of a motor action, which is a transitional stage to the formation of a motor skill, which cannot be bypassed.

Motor skill - this is such a degree of mastery of the technique of action, in which the control of movements occurs automatically and the performance of the action is highly reliable.

Motor skills, as the highest level of motor action possession, are of exceptionally great importance in educational, labor, household and physical culture and sports practice. They are characterized by their own distinctive features, many of which are the exact opposite of those that are characteristic of skills. The main ones are:

automated nature of action control;

high speed of action;

stability of the result of the action;

extreme strength and reliability.

How and thanks to what does it become possible to achieve such characteristics of a motor action? And to this complex question, a clear answer is given by the doctrine of the construction of movements by N.A. Bernstein.

In accordance with this theory, a skill is actively formed by the nervous system, and in this process, phases or stages that are essentially different from each other and located in a strict sequence replace each other.

These phases are: determination of the leading level; determination of the motor composition of the skill; identification and painting of corrections; automation, standardization and stabilization of motor skills. The boundaries of the listed phases of skill formation are largely conditional and may partially overlap each other.

Based on the material presented in this section, the following very important conclusions can be drawn:

a skill is a coordination structure, which is a mastered ability to solve one or another type of motor task;

building a motor skill is an active process, and not passive following the flow of external influences, as follows from the theory of conditioned reflexes;

building a motor skill is a semantic chain action, consisting of a number of qualitatively different phases, logically passing one into another;

a motor skill is not a fixed pattern or stereotype once and for all, and is variable and plastic to the full extent of the level at which it is controlled.

In connection with the above provisions, it is necessary to pay attention to one more important circumstance. Many scientists, both in our country and abroad, disagree on what is primary - skill or skill. In the above definition of a motor skill and many other provisions of N.A. Bernstein very convincingly substantiated and confirmed the position that the first stage of mastering an action is the stage of skill, and the highest and last stage is the stage of skill. In other words, a motor skill turns into a motor skill of mastering an action, and not vice versa, as can be read in a number of textbooks and teaching aids.

In accordance with the above ideas, all the phases of the process of forming a motor skill described above can be combined into three stages, during which the excess degrees of freedom of moving organs are overcome and they turn into controlled systems.

First stage characterized by low speed, tension, inaccuracy of movements. This is due to the need to block excessive degrees of freedom of the kinematic chain. This stage corresponds to the first two phases of the formation of the skill and partially the third.

Second stage characterized by a gradual disappearance of tension, the formation of muscle coordination, an increase in the speed and accuracy of a motor act. This stage is characterized by the third and fourth phases - painting corrections and automation of control.

Third stage Skill formation is characterized by a decrease in the proportion of active muscular efforts in the implementation of movement due to the use of reactive forces, which ensures the dynamic stability of movements and the efficiency of energy consumption. During this stage, the phases of standardization and stabilization of the motor skill are realized.

General structure and main tasks of the process of mastering motor actions

All the above stages and stages of the formation of a motor skill, set out in accordance with the theory of the construction of movements by N.A. Bernstein, are in full accordance with the well-known and widespread ideas about overall structure the process of learning motor actions, in which there are three stages of assimilation of educational material.

Work at these stages is characterized by certain distinctive features, which are reflected in the features of the development tasks, as well as in the means and methods used.

According to this structure content the first stage is the formation of a holistic view of the motor action and its initial learning. At this stage, the prerequisites for the assimilation of a motor action are formed and the initial motor skill arises, which allows performing a motor action in general terms.

The second stage is characterized by in-depth detailed learning. As a result, at this stage, the motor skill is refined, and it partially turns into a skill.

The third stage is the process of achieving mastery in mastering the technique of the mastered motor action. Consolidation and further improvement of motor action correspond to it, as a result of which a strong skill is formed. There is an adaptation of the skill to various conditions of its implementation.

This general structure of the process of mastering a motor action should not be considered as a completely unchanged standard scheme. To a certain extent, it can be specified and modified depending on specific goals, tasks of mastering motor actions, their features, etc. So, in the conditions of mass education, the main attention is paid to the first and partially to the second stages, and further improvement of skills occurs in the process of self-study. At the same time, all three stages take place in sports training, and the latter is considered as the main subject of activity and is a long-term process.

Motor errors: their prevention and correction

As a rule, it is impossible to perform the movement immediately correctly, without errors under normal conditions. This circumstance greatly complicates the process of mastering movements. Some errors are due to the patterns of formation of a motor skill, others are associated with the lack of necessary ideas, others - with non-compliance with certain conditions, etc.

Success in mastering movements largely depends on how correctly the causes of the origin of motor errors are determined and how well the methods for correcting them correspond to the true causes of their occurrence. The most typical are the following groups of errors:

introduction of additional unnecessary movements into the motor act;

enslavement of movements, disproportion of muscle efforts, unnecessary involvement of additional muscle groups;

deviations in the direction and amplitude of movements;

distortion of the general rhythm of motor action;

movement at insufficient speed.

The main reasons for these errors are:

incorrect or insufficiently complete idea of ​​the structure and motor composition of the mastered motor action;

incorrect or insufficiently complete understanding of the motor task;

lack of motor experience of the student;

insufficient physical fitness of the student;

uncertainty, fear, feeling of fatigue, etc.;

incorrect organization of the process of mastering a motor action.

To increase the efficiency of mastering motor actions and prevent errors, the correct procedure for their implementation is of great importance. The main parameters of such a regulation are the number of repetitions and rest intervals between them. Their specific characteristics can be very different, as they are determined by many factors (complexity of movements, stage of development, individual capabilities of the practitioner, etc.). However, in all cases, the following general rules should be remembered and observed:

the number of repetitions of a new action is determined by the ability of the practitioner to improve the movement with each new attempt;

repeated execution with the same errors is a signal to take a break to rest and think about your actions;

rest intervals should provide optimal readiness for the next attempt - both physical and mental;

to continue the development of movements with severe fatigue is inappropriate and even harmful;

breaks between classes should be as short as possible so as not to lose skills already acquired.